An Introduction to Ashkenazic Hebrew and Aramaic

◊

◊

COMPANION TO: THE ASHKENAZIC DICTIONARY

See also Youtube audio selections

Jump to: Contents; Three Types of Ashkenazic; Vowel System; Historical Debates

◊

by Dovid Katz

AUTHOR’S PREVIOUS WORKS ON ASHKENAZIC HEBREW AND ARAMAIC

◊

WORK IN PROGRESS: Draft only (last update: Dec. 2023) of the manual, which originated as course notes for Introduction to Ashkenazic Hebrew (and Aramaic), held as part of the Workmen’s Circle Spring 2021 program of online courses. Comments, corrections and suggestions are welcome (info@yddishculturaldictionary.org).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The author wishes to thank Kolia Borodulin, director of Yiddish programming at the Workmens Circle (NY), for his generosity of spirit and assistance in enabling Ashkenazic (Hebrew and Aramaic) to find its place within wider Yiddish and East European Jewish studies in the Spring 2021 session. Thanks are due to all thirty or so participants in the first course for their contributions; to technical director (and Ashkenazic connoisseur) Boruch Bloom; to Nessa Olshansky-Ashtar (Hamilton, Canada), Prof. Rachel Albeck-Gidron (Bar Ilan Univ.), Philip Schwartz (Wroclaw, Poland), Julia Rets (St. Petersburg, Russia), and Gabriel A. Zuckerberg (New York) for their suggestions and corrections to the evolving manuscript. Siarhej Shupa (Prague) kindly provided the texts to three forgotten Hebrew poems by Yiddish master poet Meyshe Kulbak from the poet’s youth. Thanks also to Joanna (Ashke) Czaban (Krinki, Poland) and Julia Rets for recording bona fide Ashkenazic versions of poems by Bialik, Imber and Tchernichovsky; to Alex Foreman (Chicago, Ill.) for permission to include his exceptional online recordings of  Bialik poems, and for his gracious agreement to visit the final session. Other visitors who provided valuable input include Daniel Galay (Leyvik House, Tel Aviv) and Professor Shalom Goldman (Middlebury College). It would be remiss to omit my gratitude to the two major sources of living Ashkenazic in my early life: my late father, poet Menke Katz, and my enrollment in Etz Chaim of Boro Park for part of my elementary school education when it was perhaps the last Ashkenazic (Ivris b’Ivris) speaking school on the planet, with lifelong gratitude to our beloved principal and teachers: Rabbi Israel Dov Lerner and his teaching staff, including Mrs. Adelman, Mrs. Klayman, Mrs. Koppelman, Mr. Ostrow and Rabbi Sonnenschein. Over the years, I have benefited much from discussions on Ashkeanzic issues with Prof. Ghil’ad Zuckermann and the late Professor Benjamin Harshav.

Some of the material herein hails from three decades of Yiddish expeditions in Eastern Europe, for which the beginnings of an atlas and video archive are online. Spinoffs from the Workmens Circle course include, in addition to the present manual, a mini-dictionary and youtube playlist. Naturally, full responsibility for errors, shortcomings and opinions expressed, implicitly or otherwise, rests with the author alone.

---

◊

Liturgical Samples Quickfinder:

HAFTORAH BLESSINGS

MOURNER’S KADDISH (FORMAL; INTIMATE; MORE INTIMATE)

PASSOVER: FOUR QUESTIONS; TEN PLAGUES; KHAD GADYO

◊

Hebrew Poetry Quickfinder: 

H.N. BIALIK ♫

Y.L. GORDON

N.H. IMBER ♫

RABBI  A.E. KAPLAN ♫

M. KULBAK

S. TCHERNICHOVSKY ♫

◊

ASHKENAZIC MINI-DICTIONARY

◊

◊

• ☰Contents☰
• ◊

• ◊

• The Sounds of Ashkenazic

• and their

• Cultural Content

• ◊
• Vocalism of Standard Ashkenazic (and of principal Southern and Northern Dialects)
• ◊
• Consonantism
• ◊
• Three Major Types of Ashkenazic:
  • Ashke-1
  • Ashke-2
  • Ashke-3
  • Key Feature of Ashke-3: Closed Syllable Shortening
• ◊
• Ashkenazic Stressblockers
• ◊
• Ashkenazic Variability
  • Rhythm
  • Rhyme
  • Dialect
  • Vernacularization
  • Devernacularization
  • The Pleasure Principle
• ◊
• ◊
• Grammar and Usage
• ◊
• Morphology
  • Nominal paradigms
  • Prefixal mobilization
  • Pluralization and gender
  • Analogical leveling
  • ◊
• Lexicon and Semantics
  • חפץ√
  • Unmarked everyday forms
  • Jewish cultural content
    • ◊
• Aspects of Usage  
  • Reflexive
  • First person variations
  • Second person address
  • Prepositional use
  • Relative pronouns
  • Possession via genitive
  • Article placement in nominal compounds
  • Retention of definite article with preposition
  • Copula
• ◊
• ◊
• Texts 
• ◊
• ◊
• Religious and Liturgical
• ◊
• Prayers
• ◊
• Two of the Post-Haftorah Blessings
• ◊
• Passover Seyder Selections
• The Four Questions (bilingual Yiddish-Hebrew)
• The Ten Plagues
• Khad Gadyo
• *
• Mourner’s Kaddish
• Formal Kaddish (in Ashke-1)
• Intimate  Kaddish (in Ashke-2)
• More Intimate Kaddish (in Ashke-3)
• Composite Kaddish
• ❊
• Modern Hebrew Poetry
• ◊
• H.N. Bialik
• Loy Bayóym V’lóy Baláylo
• in Standard Ashkenazic
• in Southern (Warsaw)
• in Northern (Vilna)
• (The author’s Yiddish version)
• ◊
• B’ír Haharéygo
• Bisshuvosi
• *
• Y. L. Gordon
• Hasús Vəhasís
• *
• N.H. Imber
• Hatikvoh
• in Standard Ashkenazic
• in Southern (Warsaw)
• in Northern (Vilna)
• Original poem (with Standard Ashkenazic transcription)
• *
• Meyshe Kulbak
• Gan Stov
• Day Ekhovey
• Bəaflúlis Leyl
• *
• Sh. Tchernichovsky
• Sákhki Sákhki
• (Y.Y. Shvarts’s Yiddish translation)
• *
• ◊
• ◊
• ◊
• ◊
• Appendices 
• Historical and sociological debates conceived as separate from the Manual itself. It is hoped that readers of the most diverse viewpoints on these contentious subjects will find something of interest or use in the Manual per se. The author’s writings on Ashkenazic are available online.

• ◊

• Appendix 1:   Daniel Persky: Excerpt from Correct Hebrew (1962).

• Appendix 2:   S. Burnshaw, T. Carmi et al (eds): The Hebrew Poem Itself (1966).

• Appendix 3:   Miryam Segal: A New Sound in Hebrew Poetry (2010).

• Appendix 4:  Itamar Even-Zohar: The Emergence of a Native Hebrew Culture in Palestine: 1882-1948 (1997).

• Appendix 5:  Shelomo Morag: The Emergence of Modern Hebrew: Some Sociolinguistic Perspectives (1993).

• Appendix 6:   Dovid Katz: Words on Fire. The Unfinished Story of Yiddish (2007).

• Appendix 7:  Assertion on late 19th — early 20th century First Aliyah Ashkenazic as native spoken language (and the first manifestation  of vernacular Hebrew in c. two millennia).

• Appendix 8: A. M. Kaiser’s essay on the campaign for “Sephardic” Hebrew in London (from his Ba undz in Vaytshepl, London 1944, pp. 68-70).

◊

Mini-Dictionary

◊

---

◊◊

Vowels

NOTE: For readers interested in the cognates within the system of pan-Yiddish vocalism, each vowel’s ID is added at the end of the entry. The system is explained in various works on Yiddish linguistics and dialectology (e.g. here).

◊

אַ (and אֲ when not deleted)

a

אַתְּ; אַתָּה, גַּן; נַחַתֿ, צַד, קַל, רַק.

COGNATE IN YIDDISH VOCALISM: GENERALLY VOWEL 11 (A¹)

---

◊

אָ (and אֳ when not deleted)

o ([ɔ])

אָדָם; הָלַךְ; כְּּבוֹדָהּ; לְבָנָה; נְתַֿנְיָהוּ; עָשָֹה; עָתִֿיד; שָׁם

Aide-mémoire:  קָמָץ or קוּמְצָא דְפוּמָא = ‘contracting of the mouth’ (≠ פַּתָֿח or פַּתְֿחָא דְּפוּמָא ‘opening wide of the mouth’).

Note: In Southern dialects realized as u in open syllables, o in closed syllables: אָדָם = udom. It is also realized as o in Southern dialects in the  case of possessive hey with mapik: כְּבוֹדָהּ = kvoydo. Cf. אִשָּׁה ishu ‘woman’ ≠ אִישֶָׁהּ isho ‘her husband’.

 

COGNATES IN YIDDISH VOCALISM: GENERALLY VOWEL 12 (A²) IN OPEN SYLLABIES; VOWEL 41 (O¹) IN CLOSED SYLLABLES

---

◊

(אֱ/) אֶ

e ([ε])

אֶל; בְּדִיעֶבֶד; חֶסֶד; מֶלֶךְ; מְפוּרסֶמֶתֿ; מְרַחֶפֶתֿ; תִּפְאֶרֶתֿ

Note: In Southern dialects realized as ey [ej] in (primevally) stressed open syllables, but as e ([ε]) in syllables to which originally ultimate stress shifted to penultimate in Ashkenazic: חֶסֶד = khéysed, but אֱמֶתֿ = émes.

COGNATES IN YIDDISH VOCALISM: GENERALLY VOWEL 25 (E⁵) IN OPEN SYLLABIES; VOWEL 21 (E¹) IN CLOSED SYLLABLES

---

◊

אֵ(י)

ey ([ej])

אֵל; אֵלֶה; בְּהֵמָה; בִּשְׁלֵמוּתֿ; הֵם; חֵשֶׁק; כֵּן

Note: In Southern dialects, realized as ay ([aj]): חֵשֶׁק = kháyshek; הֵם = haym. This is however not the case in Southeastern (Ukrainian [Podolian, Volynian, Bessarabian) Hebrew which follows the north in this vowel.

COGNATES IN YIDDISH VOCALISM: GENERALLY VOWEL 22 (E²) WHEN LONG AND  VOWEL 21 (E¹) WHEN SHORT IN ALL DIALECTS

---

◊

אִ(י) 

i (/iy [ij]; [ī])

אִם, לִפְנֵי; מִפִּי; יְלִיד; כִּתָּה; קִיר; קְלִיפָּה

Note: The southern dialects of East European Yiddish and Ashkenazic, comprising the major groups of Mideastern (“Polish”) and Southeastern (“Ukrainian”) preserve a further length distinction between i  sounds on a generally predictable basis based on the ancient Tiberian forms. Cf. e.g. Southern shívo (‘seven’ or ‘the seven-day mourning period) vs. ksí:vo (‘handwriting’). These contrasts, reflecting ancient Tiberian oppositins long after change of syllabic structure, are only observable in Ashke-2 and Ashke-3, and are generally lost in synchromically unstressed position.

COGNATES IN YIDDISH VOCALISM: GENERALLY  VOWEL 32 (I²) WHEN LONG AND  VOWEL 31 (I¹) WHEN SHORT IN ALL DIALECTS

---

◊

(אֹ /) אוֹ

oy ([ɔj])

חוֹשֶֶׁךְ; חֲלוֹמוֹתֿ; כְּבוֹדוֹ; סוֹדוֹתֿ; קוֹלוֹתֿ, שׁוֹמֵר; תּוֹרָה

Note 1: In Northern dialects: ey ([ej]: קוֹלוֹתֿ = keyleys; חֲלוֹמוֹתֿ = khaleymeys.

Note 2: In the United States, Britain and other English speaking countries, an o: (ou) realization (“o as in home”) often replaced the East European oy (/Northern ey) realizations of holem. This was often due to sociolinguistic factors (e.g. embarrassment over oy phonemes considered “funny” and “greenhorn” in some English speaking countries; also: identification with Haredi religious culture and a desire to stay away from its phonetic hallmarks). Similar realizations were found in older German Jewish traditions that predated East European mass migration in the United States and Great Britain and made for a conveniently popular “way out.” See for example, the transcription of the mourner’s kaddish in Dr. Philips’ prayerbook in the earlier and mid twentieth century by Hebrew Publishing Company.

Note 3: In traditional Ashkenazic society, every male studies the classical Accents (trop) and their application to his Bar Mitzvah day’s readings from the Pentateuch and Haftorah, engendering an intimate familiarity that reinforces that of all men and women with Ashke-1 by virtue of enjoing Sabbath and holiday Torah readings by a reader who keeps strictly to classican accentuation.

COGNATES IN YIDDISH VOCALISM: GENERALLY VOWEL 42 (O²) IN OPEN SYLLABIES; VOWEL 41 (O¹) IN CLOSED SYLLABLES

---

◊

(אֻ /) אוּ

u

גְּדוּלָה; גּוּפאָ; הוּא; כְּלוּם; סְעוּדָה; תְּחוּם; קוּף

Note: In Southern dialects the realization is i (whether long or short dependent on position and dialect): הוּא = hi(:), גְּדולָה = gedilu.

Note: The southern dialects of East European Yiddish and Ashkenazic, comprising the major groups of Mideastern (“Polish”) and Southeastern (“Ukrainian”) preserve a further length distinction between historic u  sounds on a generally predictable basis based on the ancient Tiberian forms. Fonrting and unrounding has resulted overthe centuries in the realizations being , synchronmically speaking, among i vowels in recent centuries. Cf. e.g. Southern khípu (‘traditional wedding canopy’)) vs. bí:shu (‘disgrace’). These contrasts, reflecting ancient Tiberian oppositins long after change of syllabic structure, are only observable in Ashke-2 and Ashke-3, and are generally lost in synchromically unstressed position.

COGNATES IN YIDDISH VOCALISM: GENERALLY  VOWEL 52 (U²) WHEN LONG AND  VOWEL 51 (U¹) WHEN SHORT IN ALL DIALECTS

---

◊

“Diphthong 34 via Hiatus” 

As in the  Semitic Component in Yiddish, there is a  pan-Ashkenazic reflex of Semitic etymons that emerges, in effect, as an additional vowel, consistently yielding systematic correspondences between Ashenazic/Yiddish dialects as is the nature of derivatives from a common protolanguage. Vowel 34 in the pan-Yiddish system, most frequently in the Germanic Component in Yiddish a reflex of Middle High German long î , e.g. fayn ‘fine’, váyn ‘wine’, with the usual pan-Yiddish systematic dialectal differentiation, emerging e.g. as ā in Mideastern (“Polish-Hungarian”) Yiddish, yielding fān, vān, and a in much Southeastern (“Ukrainian-Bessarabian”) Yiddish, yielding fan, van.

The “Vowel 34 effect” usually emerges in resolution of vocalic hiatus, most frequently the sequencing of a pasakh and khatof-pasakh, shewa,  and occasionally of other vowels in sequence. Very early in Ashkenazic linguistic history, the loss of consonantal realization of alef and ayin and the ensuing hiatus triggered migration to the usually Germanic-derived lexicon exhibiting Vowel 34.

ay

גַּאֲוָה; דְּאָגָה; טַעֲנָה; מַאֲדִים; מַאֲמִין; מַהַפַּךְ; מַעֲשֶׂה; תַּעֲנוּג 

Note 1: As a wider Ashkenazic phenomenon, it is frequently the case that a lexical item for which  “diphthong 34” is reflected consistently across language varieties descending from the entire breadth of historic Ashkenaz. One implication is interdialectal predictability, as is common for varieties deriving from a protolanguage or earlier common ancestor variety state.  So, for example,if one hears or sees maymin as the Northeastern (“Lithuanian”) Ashkeanzic rendition, it can be predicted that it will surface empirically as mamin in the Southeastern (“Ukrainian”) varieties and má:min  in the Mideastern (“Polish”) Ashkenazic.

Note 2: Occasionally, in tandem with the situation in Yiddish, with which Ashkenazic interacts within the Ashkenazic polysystem (in the sense of Prof. Even-Zohar,ד development of the term and its features) in myriad ways that add layers to the lexicon and semantics of any of the donor varieties (stock languages in Max Weinreich’s terminology). Uniquely Ashkenazic oppositions are not infrequently observed, for example historical שְׁאֵלָה (‘question’), yielding Ashkenazic sháylo in the sense of a question asked of a rabbi or other authority concerning permissability vs. forbidden status (e.g. about whether an item is kosher) and in a number of emotive and homey contexts (e.g. in an exclamation along the lines of “Wow, now that is a question!”). This contrasts with sh(ə)éylo (‘question of any kind’). That contrast of what are now effectively two lexical items, of general sh(ə)éylo vs. much more nuanced sháylo is mirrored precisely in the southern dialects of Eastern Yiddish, yielding the cognate opposition of sh(ə)áylu vs. shá(:)lu.

COGNATE TO YIDDISH VOWEL 34

---

◊

◊◊

Consontantism

תּ = t

תֿ = s

שַׁבָּתֿ, לָתֵֿתֿ, תְּרוּמוֹתֿ

Classically spirantized tof (historically θ, or th as in thought), is pronounced s. Because of many students’ difficulty in averting its collapse with plosive תּ as unitary in Israeli, the spirantized ת is marked in this manual with the classical rofe over the letter denoting spirantized s: תֿ.

---

---

◊

◊

  The Three Basic Types of Ashkenazic Hebrew (and Aramaic)

◊

  „מַלְכוּתֿ אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ“

(Esther 3:6, 9:30)

◊

  „לֵב טוֹב“

(Mishnah Avoth 2: 9)

◊

◊

Ashke-1 (′נוּסַח א)

 Formal Biblical Reading (and other formal pointed-text contents throughout Ashkenazic history)

Formal Hebrew Speech (schools, conferences, etc from 19th century)

◊

Features:

Word-final stress where denoted by Tiberian accentuation (i.e. accentuation identical with classical), with no posttonic vowel reduction:

Standard Ashkenazic: malkhús akhashveyróysh; leyv toyv 

Southern (“!Polish”): malkhís akhashvayróysh; layv toyv

Northern:( “Lithuanian”): malkhús akhashveyréysh; leyv teyv

Old Western: malkhús akhashveyróush; leyv touv

---

◊

Ashke-2 (′נוּסַח ב)

General Prayer and Recitation (from times of medieval stress shift onward)

Bible Study (& other pointed texts in educational context)

Modern Hebrew Poetry (from the early 19th  century onward)

Revived Hebrew Speech (in maskilic and original East European Hebraist and Zionist circles and education alongside more formal variants in line with Ashke-1)

◊

Features:

Penultimate stress (corresponding to classical ultimate and penultimate alike) with no posttonic vowel reduction:

Standard Ashkenazic: málkhus akhashvéyroysh; leyv toyv

Southern (“!Polish”): málkhis akhashváyroysh; layv toyv

Northern: (“Lithuanian”) [sample]: málkhus akhashvéyreysh; leyv teyv 

Old Western: málkhus akhashvéyroush; leyv touv

---

◊

Ashke-3 (′נוּסַח ג)

 Talmudic and Kabbalistic Study (with unpointed texts)

  Intimate Prayer

Semitic Component in Yiddish

◊

Features:

Penultimate stress with posttonic reduction and Closed Syllable Shortening

Standard Ashkenazic: málkhəs akhashvéyrəsh; lev tov (/lef tov)

Southern (“!Polish”): málkhəs akhashváyrəsh lev tof (/lef tof)

Northern: (“Lithuanian”): málkhus akhashvéyrəsh; lev tov (/lef tov)

Old Western: málkhəs akhashvéyrəsh; lev tov◊

---

◊

◊

Major Blockers of Penultimate Stress

◊

1

Shewa as a rule is not stressed (and is in fact often deleted):

בְּכוֹר [bəkhóyr], Northern: [bəkhéyr], SCY/Tal (=Semitic Component in Yiddish and Talmudic studies): [bəkhór] or [pkhór] (‘the eldest son’)

גְּבוּל [gəvúl], Southern: [gəvíl], SCY/Tal: [gvúl], Southern: [gvíl] (‘border’)

כְּמוֹ [kəmóy], Northern: [kəméy] (‘like’, ‘similar to’)

---

◊

2

Prefixed non-root morphemes are generally not stressed. These include:

Definite articles:

הַבֵּן [habéyn], Southern [habáyn]; when cited in  SCY/Tal: [habén] (‘the son’)

הַיוֹם  [hayóym], Northern [hayéym] ; in SCY/Tal: [hayóm] (‘the day’; ‘today’)

הָעָם [hoóm], Southern [hu:óm] (‘the nation’)

---

◊

Prepositions:

לַשֵׁם [lashéym], Southern: [bəsháym]; SCY/Tal: [lashém] (‘to the name’)

בַּסוֹף [basóyf], Northern: [baséyf]; SCY/Tal: [basóf] (‘at the end’)

מִכָּל [mikól] (‘from all’)

---

◊

Relativizing pronoun:

שֶבָּא [shebó], Southern: [shebú:] (‘that came’, ‘who came’)

שֶאֵין [she-éyn], Southern: [sheáyn], SCY/Tal: [she-én]  (‘that is not’, ‘that does not’)

---

◊

3

‘Sacred Stress’:

אָמֵן [oméyn], Southern: [umáyn] (‘Amen’)

יְיָ  [adoynóy], Northern: [adeynóy], SCY/Tal: [adənóy] (‘God’, ‘The Lord’); also (to avoid uttering the sacred: [adoyshém], Northern: [adeyshém}, SCY/Tal: [adəshém]

אֱלֹהִים [eloyhím], Northern: [eleyhím]. SCT/Tal: [eləhím] (‘God’)

יעמוד [yaamóyd], Northern: [yaaméyd] (‘There will rise’ [calling up the next to say the blessings over the portion of the Torah about to be read]

---

◊

4

Three-letter Acronymics in the Nominal Templates CaCáC and CaCó:

חב″ד  [khabád] (Chabad [Lubavitch Hasidism]); {< חכמה בינה דעתֿ}

חג″תֿ  [khagás] (Southern / Non-Litvak, ‘real’ Hasidim); {< חסד גבורה תפארתֿ}

חז″ל [khazál] (‘the great sages of blessed memory’) {< חכמינו זכרונם לברכה}

רמ″א  [ramó], Southern: [ramú] (the Ramo, Rabbi Moses Isserles) {< ר′ משה איסרליש}

רח″ש [rakhásh] (expenses of hiring the rabbi, cantor and beadle for wedding or other religious event) {< רב חזן שמש}

של″ה [shaló], Southern: [shalú:] (Shney Lukhoys Habris = Rabbi Isaiah Horowitz) {< שני לוחות הברית}

שס″ה [shasó], Southern: [shasú:] (‘365 [days of the solar calendar’) {< ‘ש’+ס’+ה}

תנ″ך [tanákh] (‘the Hebrew Bible’) {< תורה נביאים כתֿובים}

Note: the rule does not generally hold for other acronyms which tend to follow the penultimate pattern,  e.g. רש″י (Ráshi; SCY(Tal): Ráshə),  מלבי″ם (Málbim), יעב″ץ  (Yá(y)vits),  רמב″ם (Rámbam = Maimonides),  מהרש″א  (Mehársho). The case of רמב″ן (rambán = Moses Ben Nachman = Nachmanides) is generally explained by the need for sharp contrast with the acronym of Maimonides.

---

◊

5

Contrastive Stress

Ultimate stress may be invoked for the sake of contrast, e.g.

אִשָּה [ísho] ‘woman’ vs. אִישָהּ [ishó] ‘her husband’; 

מַלְׁכָּה [málko] ‘queen’ vs.  מַלְׁכָּהּ [malkó] ‘her (/it’s f.) king’.

Note that in southern dialects, the possessive הּ (hey with ,mapik) is rendered o (a per closed syllable rules, yielding Yiddish vowel 41), contrasting with u: for komets in open syllable, giving ishu: ‘woman’ vs. isho ‘her husband’, malku ‘queen’ vs. malko (‘her (/it’s f.) king’).

◊

◊

◊

Ashke-3: Semitic Component in Yiddish; Study and exposition of Hebrew and Aramaic texts of Bible, Talmud, Kabbalah (SCYT)

“Living Language and Unpointed Texts”

 

 

Closed Syllable Shortening:

k(ə)lol, k(ə)lolim → klal, klolim

leyts, leytsim → lets, leytsim, 

soyfeyr, soyfrim → soyfer, sofrim

Note: Quantitatively, the oral and “read” (whether or not out loud) use of Ashke-3 over the last millennium is exponentially higher than the others combined, including entire days of intensive study of unpointed texts, and for many also heavily encroaching in some pointed) prayer texts. This is verily the language of everyday life (the Semitic Component of the full daily language Yiddish). The rise of Ashke-2, primarily in the hands of the great Hebrew poets of nineteenth and early twentieth century, stands in stark counterpoint to the less formal (most widely used) Ashke-3 and the more formal Ashke-1 (mastered by Torah readers and other scholars).  Beyond posttonic reduction of vowels to various degrees of shewa, the stressed syllables are processed by Closed Syllable Shortening. For Yiddish linguists: In closed syllables, Vowel 12 (A²) ⇒ 11 (A¹), Vowel 22 (E²) ⇒ 21 (E¹), and Vowel 42 (O²) ⇒ 41 (O¹). Given the derivation of (much of) all Yiddish dialects (and their Semitic Components and Ashkenazic traditions) from a proto language, it is possible to predict from these formulas the outcome in most cases within any given dialect.

 

 

	Ashke-1 (Bible, formal prayer)	Ashke-2 (Some prayer, MHP)	oAshke-3 (SCY; unpointed text study)
דָּם (komots)	dom	dom	dam
שֵׁם (tseyrey)	sheym (/S: shaym)	sheym (/S: shaym)	shem
סוֹד (khoylom)	soyd (/N: soyd)	soyd (/N: seyd)	sod

 

Note: In Yiddish as in study of Talmud and other unpointed text, the Closed Syllable Shortening rule produces the characteristic alternations of three principal vocalic pairs:

(1) o ∼ a: pl. protim (/S: pru:tim) ‘details’ ∼ sg. prat

(2) ey ∼ e: shed ‘ghost’ ∼ pl. sheydim (/S: shaydim)

(3) oy ∼ o: soyfer (/N: seyfer) ∼ pl. sofrim

---

◊

◊

Prayers: Three Basic Types

(1) Miléyl (with Ashkenazic penultimate accentuation).

(2) Milrá (with word-final stress where required by classical Tiberian accentuation).

(3) Synthesis of the two.◊

:Example from two of the blessings following the Haftorah reading

רַחֵם עַל צִיּוֹן כִּי הִיא בֵיתֿ חַיֵּינוּ, וְלַעֲלוּבַתֿ נֶפֶשׁ תּוֹשִׁיעַ בִּמְהֵרָה בְיָמֵינוּ: בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְיָ, מְשַׂמֵּחַ צִיּוֹן בְּבָנֶיהָ:

שַׂמְּחֵנוּ יְיָ אֱלֹהֵינוּ בְּאֵלִיָּהוּ הַנָּבִיא עַבְדֶּךָ, וּבְמַלְכוּתֿ בֵּיתֿ דָּוִד מְשִׁיחֶךָ, בִּמְהֵרָה יָבֹא וְיָגֵל לִבֵּנוּ. עַל כִּסְאוֹ לֹא יֵשֵׁב זָר וְלֹא יִנְחֲלוּ עוֹד אֲחֵרִים אֶת כְּבוֹדוֹ. כִּי בְשֵׁם קָדְשְׁךָ נִשְׁבַּעְתָּ לֹּו שֶׁלֹּא יִכְבֶּה נֵרוֹ לְעוֹלָם וָעֶד: בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְיָ, מָגֵן דָּוִד:

(1) Miléyl (with Ashkenazic penultimate accentuation):

Rákheym al tsíyoyn ki hi véys khayéynu, vəlaalúvas néfesh toyshíya bimhéyro bəyoméynu. Bórukh áto adoynóy, mesaméyakh tsíyoyn bəvoného.

Samkhéynu Adoynóy eloyhéynu bəEyliyóhu hanóvi avdékho, uvmálkhus beys Dóvid məshikhékho, bimhéyro yóvoy, vəyógeyl libéynu. Al kísoy loy yéysheyv zor, vloy yinkhálu oyd akhéyrim es kvóydoy, ki vəshem kódshəkho nizhbáto loy, shelóy yíkhbe néyroy ləóylom vóed. Bórukh áto Adonóy, mógeyn Dóvid.

(2) Milrá (with word-final stress where required by classical Tiberian accentuation):

Rakhéym al tsiyóyn ki hi véys khayéynu, vəlaaluvás néfesh toyshíya bimheyró bəyoméynu. Borúkh ató adoynóy, mesaméyakh tsiyóyn bəvoného.

Samkhéynu Adoynóy eloyhéynu bəEyliyóhu hanoví avdékho, uvmalkhús beys Dovíd məshikhékho, bimheyró yovóy, vəyogéyl libéynu. Al kisóy loy yéysheyv zor, vloy yinkhalú oyd akheyrím es kvoydóy, ki vəshém kodshəkhó nizhbáto loy, shelóy yikhbé neyróy ləoylóm voéd. Borúkh ató Adonóy, mogéyn Dovíd.

(3) Synthesis of the two:◊

Rakhéym al tsíyoyn ki hi véys khayéynu, vəlaaluvás néfesh toyshíya bimheyró bəyoméynu. Borúkh ató adoynóy, mesaméyakh tsíyoyn bəvoného.

Samkhéynu Adoynóy eloyhéynu bəEyliyóhu hanóvi avdékho, uvmálkhús beys Dóvid məshikhékho, bimheyró yovóy, vəyogéyl libéynu. Al kísoy loy yéysheyv zor, vloy yinkhálu oyd akhéyrim es kvoydóy, ki vəshém kodshəkhó nizhbáto loy, shelóy yikhbé néyroy ləoylóm voéd. Borúkh ató Adonóy, mogéyn Dovíd.

---

◊

◊

Mourner’s Kaddish

◊

קדיש יתֿום

• יִתְֿגַּדַּל וְיִתְֿקַדַּשׁ שְׁמֵיהּ רַבָּא, בְּעָלְמָא דִּי בְרָא כִרְעוּתֵֿהּ וְיַמְלִיךְ מַלכותֵֿהּ בְּחַיֵּיכוֹן וּבְיוֹמֵיכוֹן וּבְחַיֵּי דְכָל בֵּיתֿ יִשְׂרָאֵל בַּעֲגָלָא וּבִזְמַן קָרִיב וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן:
• יְהֵא שְׁמֵיהּ רַבָּא מְבָרַךְ לְעָלַם לְעָלְמֵי עָלְמַיָּא:
• יִתְֿבָּרַךְ וְיִשְׁתַּבַּח וְיִתְֿפָּאַר וְיִתְֿרוֹמַם וְיִתְֿנַשֵּׂא וְיִתְֿהַדָּר וְיִתְֿעַלֶּה וְיִתְֿהַלָּל שְׁמֵהּ דְּקֻדְשָׁא בְרִיךְ הוּא:
• לְעֵלָּא מִן כָּל בִּרְכָתָֿא שִׁירָתָֿא תִּשְׁבְּחָתָֿא וְנֶחָמָתָֿא דַאֲמִירָן בְּעָלְמָא וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן:
• יְהֵא שְׁלָמָא רַבָּא מִן שְׁמַיָּא וְחַיִּים עָלֵינוּ וְעַל כָּל יִשְׂרָאֵל וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן:
• עֹשֶׂה שָׁלוֹם בִּמְרוֹמָיו הוּא יַעֲשֶׂה שָׁלוֹם עָלֵינוּ וְעַל כָּל יִשְׂרָאֵל וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן:

---

◊

I: FORMAL (ASHKE-1)

• Yisgadál v’yiskadásh shméy rabó
• B’olmó di vró khiruséy v’yamlíkh malkhuséy
• B’khayeykhóyn  uv’yoymeykhóyn  uvkháyey  d’khol Beys  Yisroéyl
• Boagoló  uvizmán  korív  v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• Y’HÉY SHMÉY RÁBO MEVÓRAKH, L’ÓLAM UL’ÓLMEY OLMAYÓ
• ●
• Yizborákh  v’yishtabákh v’yispoár v’yisroymám  v’yisnaséy
• V’yishadár  v’yisalé  v’yishalól shméy d’kudshó:  BRIKH HU
• ●
• L’éylo  min  kol  birkhosó  v’shirosó
• Tushb’khosó  v’nekhemosó,  d’amíron  b’ólmo v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• ●
• Y’héy  shlómo  rábo  min  shmáyo  v’kháyim
• Oléynu  v’al  kol  Yisroyéyl  vimrú: OMÉYN
• ●
• Oysé  sholóym  bimroymóv,  hu  yaasé  sholóym
• Oléynu  v’al  kol  Yisroyéyl  vimrú:  OMÉYN
• ●  ●  ●

◊

II: INTIMATE (ASHKE-2)

◊

Rendition in Litvish (Northeastern / Litvak) by Yeynesn Felendler

◊

• Yizgadal  v’yiskadash  shméy  rábo
• B’ólmo di  vró  khirúsey  v’yámlikh  malkhúsey
• B’khayéykhoyn  uv’yoyméykhoyn  ufkháyey  d’khol  Beys  Yisróeyl
• Boagólo  uvizmán  kóriv  v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• Y’HÉY SHMÉY RÁBO MEVÓRAKH, L’ÓLAM UL’ÓLMEY OLMÁYO
• ●
• Yizbórakh  v’yishtábakh  v’yispóar  v’yisróymeym  v’yisnásey
• V’yishádor  v’yisále  v’yishálel  shméy  d’kúdsho:  BRIKH HU
• ●
• L’éylo  min  kol  birkhóso  v’shiróso
• Tushb’khóso  v’nekhemóso,  d’amíron  b’ólmo v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• ●
• Y’héy  shlómo  rábo  min  shmáyo  v’kháyim
• Oléynu  v’al  kol  Yisróeyl  v’ímru: OMÉYN
• ●
• Óyse  shóloym  bimróymov,  hú  yá(a)se  shóloym
• Oléynu  v’al  kol  Yisróəl  v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• ●  ●  ●

◊

III: MORE INTIMATE (ASHKE-3)

• Yizgadal  v’yiskadash  shméy  rábo
• B’ólmə di  vró  khirúsəy  v’yámlikh  malkhúsey
• B’khayéykhən  uv’yoyméykhən  ufkháyey  d’khol  Beys  Yisróəl
• Boagólə uvizmán  kórəv  v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• Y’HÉY SHMÉY RÁBO MEVÓRAKH, L’ÓLAM UL’ÓLMEY OLMÁYO
• ●
• Yizbórakh  v’yishtábakh  v’yispóar  v’yisróyməm  v’yisnásə
• V’yishádor  v’yisálə v’yisháləl  shméy  d’kútshə:  BRIKH HU
• ●
• L’éylo  min  kol  birkhósə v’shirósə
• Tushb’khósə v’nekhemósə,  d’amírən  b’ólmə v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• ●
• Y’héy  shlómə rábə min  shmáyə v’kháyəm
• Oléynu  v’al  kol  Yisró(ə)l  v’ímru: OMÉYN
• ●
• Óyse  shóləm  bimróyməv,  hú  yásə shóləm
• Oléynu  v’al  kol  Yisró(ə)l  v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• ●  ●  ●

◊

IV: TYPICAL COMPOSITE

• Yizgadál  v’yiskadásh  shméy rabó
• B’ólmo di  vró  khirúsəy  v’yámlikh  malkhúsey
• B’khayéykhən  uv’yoyméykhən  ufkháyey  d’khol  Beys  Yisróəl
• Boagólə uvizmán  kórəv  v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• Y’HÉY SHMÉY RÁBO MEVÓRAKH,L’ÓLAM UL’ÓLMEY OLMÁYO
• ●
• Yizbórakh  v’yishtábakh  v’yispóar  v’yisróymeym v’yisnásə
• V’yishádor  v’yisálə v’yisháləl  shméy  d’kútsho:  BRIKH HU
• ●
• L’éylo  min  kol  birkhóso v’shiróso
• Tushb’khóso v’nekhemóso,  d’amíron  b’ólmə v’ímru:  OMÉYN
• ●
• Y’héy  shlómo rábo min  shmáyo f’kháyəm
• Oléynu  v’al  kol  Yisró(ə)l  v’ímru: OMÉYN
• ●
• Óyse  shóləm  bimróymov,  hú  yáse shóləm
• Oléynu  v’al  kol  Yisró(ə)l  v’ímru:  OMÉYN

---

◊

Passover Seyder Selections

ד′ קַשְׁיוֹתֿ

Traditional Hebrew Yiddish “sandwich” of the original text embedded in Yiddish introductory and concluding text. From the Vilna area but in Standard Ashkenazic and Yiddish pronunciation:

◊

If one’s father is sitting at the Peysakh table:

טאַטע! כ′ל בײַ דיר פרעגן די פיר קשיותֿ!

If not:

רבותֿי! כ′ל בײַ אײַך פרעגן די פיר קשיותֿ!

די ערשטע קשיא איז:

מַה נִּשְׁתַּנָה הַלַּיְלָה הַזֶּה מִכָּל הַלֵּילוֹתֿ?

Ma nishtáno haláylo hazé, mikól haléyloys?

פאַרוואָס איז אָטאָ די נאַכט פון פֵּסַח אַנדערש פון אַלע נעכט פון אַ גאַנץ יאָר?

שֶׁבְּכָל הַלֵּילוֹתֿ

shepkhól haléyloys

אַז אַלע נעכט פון אַ גאַנץ יאָר

אָנוּ אוֹכְלִין חָמֵץ וּמַצָּה

Ónu óykhlin khómetys umátso

עסן מיר סײַ חָמץ סײַ מַצה

הַלַּיְלָה הַזֶּה

Haláylo hazé

אָבער — אָטאָ די נאַכט פון פֵּסַח

כֻּלּוֹ מַצָּה!

Kúloy mátso

עסן מיר — נאָר מצה!

די צווייטע קשיא איז:

שֶׁבְּכָל הַלֵּילוֹת

shepkhól haléyloys

אַז אַלע נעכט פון אַ גאַנץ יאָר

אָנוּ אוֹכְלִין שְׁאָר יְרָקוֹת

Ónu óykhlin shəòr-yerókoys

עסן מיר אַלערלייאיקע גרינסן

הַלַּיְלָה הַזֶּה

Haláylo hazé

אָבער — אָטאָ די נאַכט פון פֵּסַח

מָרוֹר!

Móroyr!

 עסן מיר נאָר — ביטערע קרײַטעכער!

די דריטע קשיא איז:

שֶׁבְּכָל הַלֵּילוֹתֿ

shepkhól haléyloys

אַז אַלע נעכט פון אַ גאַנץ יאָר

אֵין אָנוּ מַטְבִּילִין אֲפִילוּ פַּעַם אֶחָתֿ

Eyn ónu madbílin, afílu páam ékhos

טונקען מיר ניט אײַנעט דעם עסן, אַפילו קיין איין מאָל אויכעט ניט

הַלַּיְלָה הַזֶּה

Haláylo hazé

אָבער — אָטאָ די נאַכט פון פֵּסַח

שְׁתֵּי פְעָמִים!

Shtéy peómim!

טונקען מיר אײַנעט דעם עסן — צוויי מאָל: איין מאָל ציבעלע אין זאַלץ⸗וואַסער, און איין מאָל — כריין אין חרוסתֿ.

די לעצטע קשיא איז:

שֶׁבְּכָל הַלֵּילוֹתֿ

shepkhól haléyloys

אַז אַלע נעכט פון אַ גאַנץ יאָר

אָנוּ אוֹכְלִין בֵּין יוֹשְׁבִין וּבֵין מְסֻבִּין

Ónu óyklin beyn yóshvin uveyn mesúbin

עסן מיר סײַ זיצנדיק סײַ אָנגעלענטערהייט

הַלַּיְלָה הַזֶּה

Haláylo hazé

אָבער — אָטאָ די נאַכט פון פֵּסַח

כֻּלָּנוּ מְסֻבִּין!

Kulónu mesúbin

עסן מיר אַלע נאָר — אָנגעלענטערהייט!

If one’s father is sitting at the Peysakh table:

טאַטע! גיב מיר אַן ענטפער אַף די פיר קשיותֿ!

If not:

רבותֿי! גיט מיר אַן ענטפער אַף די פיר קשיותֿ!

עֲבָדִים הָיִינוּ וכו′

---

◊

◊

Passover Seyder Recitation of the Ten Plagues

דָּם   dom

צְפַרְדֵּעַ   tsfardéya  (\דרומי:  tsfardáya)

כִּנִּים   kínim

עָרוֹב   óroyv (\דרומי: uróyf; צפוני: óreyv)

דֶּבֶר   déver  (\דרומי: déyver)

שְׁחִין   sh(ə)khín

בָּרָד   bórod  (דרומי: búrot)

אַרְבֶּה   árbe

חֹשֶׁךְ   khóyshekh  (צפוני: khéyshekh)

מַכַּתֿ בְּכוֹרוֹתֿ   mákas b(ə)khóyroys (צפוני:  mákas b(ə)khéyréys)

רַבִּי יְהוּדָה הָיָה נוֹתֵֿן בָּהֶם סִמָּנִים: דְּצַ″ךְ, עַדַ″שׁ, בְּאַחַ″ב.

Standard: Reb [/rábi] Yehúdo hóyo nóyseyn bóhem simónim: dətsákh, adásh, b(ə)akáv.

Southern: Reb [/rábi] Yehí:du: hú:yu: nóysayn bú:hem simú:nim: dətsákh, adásh, b(ə)akáf.

Northern: Reb [/rábi] Yehúdo hóyo néyseyn bóhem simónim: dətsákh, adásh, b(ə)akáv.

---

◊

◊

חַד גַּדְיָא

• חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא, דִּזְבַּן [\דְּזַבִּין] אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא שׁוּנְרָא, וְאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא כַּלְבָּא, וְנָשַׁךְ לְשׁוּנְרָא, דְּאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא חוּטְרָא, וְהִכָּה לְכַּלְבָּא, דְּנָשַׁךְ לְשׁוּנְרָא, דְּאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא נוּרָא, וְשָׂרַף לְחוּטְרָא, דְּהִכָּה לְכַּלְבָּא, דְּנָשַׁךְ לְשׁוּנְרָא, דְּאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא מַיָּא, וְכָבָא לְנוּרָא, דְּשָׂרַף לְחוּטְרָא, דְּהִכָּה לְכַּלְבָּא, דְּנָשַׁךְ לְשׁוּנְרָא, דְּאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא תּוּרָא, וְשָׁתָֿה לְמַיָּא, דְּכָבָא לְנוּרָא, דְּשָׂרַף לְחוּטְרָא, דְּהִכָּה לְכַּלְבָּא, דְּנָשַׁךְ לְשׁוּנְרָא, דְּאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא שׁוֹחֵט, וְשָׁחַט לְתּוּרָא, דְּשָׁתָֿה לְמַיָּא, דְּכָבָא לְנוּרָא, דְּשָׂרַף לְחוּטְרָא, דְּהִכָּה לְכַּלְבָּא, דְּנָשַׁךְ לְשׁוּנְרָא, דְּאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא מַלְאַךְ הַמָּוֶתֿ, וְשָׁחַט לְשׁוֹחֵט, דְּשָׁחַט לְתּוּרָא, דְּשָׁתָֿה לְמַיָּא, דְּכָבָא לְנוּרָא, דְּשָׂרַף לְחוּטְרָא, דְּהִכָּה לְכַּלְבָּא, דְּנָשַׁךְ לְשׁוּנְרָא, דְּאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• וְאָתָֿא הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא, וְשָׁחַט לְמַלְאָךְ הַמָּוֶתֿ, דְּשָׁחַט לְשׁוֹחֵט, דְּשָׁחַט לְתּוּרָא, דְּשָׁתָֿה לְמַיָּא, דְּכָבָא לְנוּרָא, דְּשָׂרַף לְחוּטְרָא, דְּהִכָּה לְכַּלְבָּא, דְּנָשַׁךְ לְשׁוּנְרָא, דְּאָכְלָא לְגַדְיָא, דִזְבַּן אַבָּא בִּתְֿרֵי זוּזֵי, חַד גַּדְיָא, חַד גַּדְיָא.
• חד גדיא: חד גדיא 

---

Standard:

V(ə)óso hakódoysh bór(u)khu, vəshókhat ləmàlakh-hamóves, dəshókhat leshóykheyt — dəshókhat lətúro, dəshóso ləmáyo, dəkhóvo lənúro, dəsóraf ləkhútro, dəhíko ləkálbo, dənóshakh ləshúnro — dəókhlo ləgádyo, dízban [/dəzábin] ábo bisréy zúzey: khád gádyo, khad gádyo.

*

Southern:

V(ə)ú:su: hakúdoysh bú:r(u)khi:, vəshúkhat ləmàlakh-hamúves, dəshúkhat leshóykhayt — dəshúkhat lətí:ru:, dəshú:su: ləmáyu:, dəkhúvu ləní:ru:, dəsú:raf ləkhítru:, dəhí:ku: ləkálbu:, dənúshakh ləshínru: — dəókhlu: ləgádyu:, dízban [/dəzábin] ábu: bisráy zízay: khád gádyu:, khad gádyu:.

*

Northern:

V(ə)óso hakódeysh bór(u)khu, vəshókhat ləmàlakh-hamóves, dəshókhat leshéykheyt — dəshókhat lətúro, dəshóso ləmáyo, dəkhóvo lənúro, dəsóraf ləkhútro, dəhíko ləkálbo, dənóshakh ləshúnro — dəókhlo ləgádyo, dízban [/dəzábin] ábo bisréy zúzey: khád gádyo, khad gádyo.

---

◊

◊

In Modern European Hebrew Poetry

A Cultural, Literary and Linguistic Highpoint of Ashke-2

◊

◊

 Chaim Nachman Bialik   חיים נחמן בּיאַליק

 

לֹא בַּיּוֹם וְלֹא בַּלַּיְלָה

◊

SUNG (2021) BY

JOANNA CZABAN  |  אַשקע טשאַבאַן

See also A. Z. Foreman’s reading of Bisəshuvósi and Al hashkhíto

◊

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Facsimile of the poem’s first publication in Ha-Shilóyakh (Hashiloah), Odessa 1908 (vol. 18, no. 2, p. 109). From the St. Petersburg National Library, with thanks to Julia Rets.

---

*

The vowel pointing of the following version generally follows the original, with some occasional deviation resulting from popular rendition.

• ◊
• לֹא בַּיּוֹם וְלֹא בַּלַּיְלָה    Lóy bayóym v’loy baláylo     
• חֶרֶשׁ אֵצֵא לִי אֲטַיְּלָה    khéresh éytsey li atáylo    
• לֹא בָּהָר וְלֹא בַּבִּקְעָה    Lóy bohór v’loy babíko     
• שִׁטָּה עָמְדָה שָׁם עַתִּיקָה    shíto ómdo shom atíko     
• ❋
• וְהַשִּׁטָּה פּוֹתְֿרָה חִידוֹתֿ    V’hashíto póysro khídoys  
• וּמַגִּידָה הִיא עֲתִֿידוֹתֿ    umagído hi asídoys.     
• אֶתֿ הַשִּׁטָּה אֶשְׁאַל אָנִי   Es hashíto éshal óni     
• מִי וָמִי יְהֵי חֲתָֿנִי   Mí-vomí yəhéy khasóni   
• ❋
• וּמֵאַיִן יָבֹא, שִׁטָּה   Umèy-áyin yóvoy, shíto   
• הֲמִפּוֹלִין אִם מִלִּיטָא   ha-mi-Póyln im mi-Líto     
• הֲבְמֶרְכָּבָה יַעֲבֹר שְׁבִילוֹ   Ha-v’merkóvo yáyvoyr shvíloy  
• אִם בְּמַקְלוֹ וּבְתַּרְמִילוֹ   im bəmákloy uf-tarmíloy    
• ❋
• וּמַה יָּבִיא לִי שִׁלּוּמִים    Umá yóvi li shilúmim     
• חֲרוּזֵי פְּנִינִים אִם אַלְגֻּמִּים    Khrùzey-pnínim im algúmim    
• וּמַה תָּאֳרוֹ — צַח אִם שָׁחוֹר   Umá-tó-oroy, tsakh im shókhoyr   
• אַלְמָן הוּא אִם עוֹדוֹ בָּחוּר    álmon hú im óydoy bókhur      
• ❋
• שֶׁמָא זָקֵן, שִׁטָּה טוֹבָה   Shémo-zókeyn, shíto tóyvo    
• אָז לֹא אֶשְׁמַע, אָז לֹא אֹבֶה   oz lóy éshma, oz loy óyve     
• אֹמַר לְאָבִי: הֲמִיתֵֿנִי   !Òymar-l’óvi: Hamiséyni     
• וּבְיַד זָקֵן אַל תִּתְּנֵנִי   !uvyàd-zókeyn al titnéyni   
• ❋
• לְרַגְלָיו אֶפֹּל וְאֶשָּׁקֵן   L’ráglov-époyl v’eshókeyn   
• אַךְ לֹא זָקֵן, אַךְ לֹא זָקֵן  Akh lóy zókeyn, akh lóy zókeyn     

---

◊

• In Warsaw Ashkenazic Hebrew:
• *
• Loy bayóym vəloy baláylu,
• khèyresh-áytsay li atáylu:
• Loy buhór vəloy babíku,
• shítu ómdu shom atíku.
• ❊
• Vəhashítu póysru khídoys,
• umagídu hi asídoys —
• Es hashítu éshal úni:
• Mì-vumí yəháy khasúni?
• ❊
• Imày-á:(y)in yúvoy, shítu?
• ha-mì-Póylin im mi-Lítu?
• Ha-vəmerkúvú yáavoyr shvíloy,
• im bəmákloy if-tarmíloy?
• ❊
• Imà-yúvi li shilímim?
• Khrìzay-pnínim im algímim?
• Imà-tú-uroy, tsakh im shúkhoyr?
• àlmon-hí im óydoy búkhir?
• ❊
• Shèymo-zúkayn, shítu tóyvu,
• oz lòy-éshma, oz loy óyve.
• Òymar-l’úvi: Hamisáyni —
• uvyàd-zúkayn al titnáyni!
• ❊
• Ləráglov époyl və-eshúkayn:
• Akh loy zúkayn, akh loy zúkayn.

---

◊

◊

• In Vilna Ashkenazic Hebrew
• ◊
• Ley bayéym vəley baláylo,
• khèresh-éytsey li atáylo:
• Ley bohór vəley babíko,
• shíto ómdo shom atíko.
• ❊
• Vəhashíto péysro khídeys,
• umagído hi asídeys —
• Es hashíto éshal óni:
• Mì-vomí yəhéy khasóni?
• ❊
• Umèy-áyin yóvey, shíto?
• ha-mì-Péylin im mi-Líto?
• Ha-vəmerkóvo yáaveyr shvíley,
• im bəmákley uf-tarmíley?
• ❊
• Umà-yóvi li shilúmim?
• Khrùzey-pnínim im algúmim?
• Umà-tó-orey, tsakh im shókheyr?
• àlmon-hú im óydey bókhur?
• ❊
• Shèmo-zókeyn, shíto téyvo,
• oz lèy-éshma, oz ley éyve.
• Èymar-l’óvi: Hamiséyni —
• uvyàd-zókeyn al titnéyni!
• ❊
• Ləráglov épeyl və-eshókeyn:
• Akh ley zókeyn, akh ley zókeyn

---

◊

◊

◊

ASHKENAZIC VARIABILITY

(FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF PLEASURE: RHYME, RHYTHM, DIALECT, VERNACULAR INTIMACY, ETC):

 

Rhythm +/via Vernacularization / toward or away from Yiddishization…

Ha-vəmerkóvo [/hav-merkóvo] yáavoyr [N: yáyvoyr/yáyveyr/yáyvər; S: yá:voyr/yá:vər] shvíloy,    הֲבְמֶרְכָּבָה יַעֲבֹר שְׁבִילוֹ

im bəmákloy uf-tarmíloy? [/uvə-sarmíylo]     אִם בְּמַקְלוֹ וּבְתַּרְמִילוֹ

❋

---

◊

Rhyme + Vernacularization…

Umà-tó-oroy, tsakh im shókhoyr [/shókhər]?     וּמַה תָּאֳרוֹ — צַח אִם שָׁחוֹר

àlmon-hú im óydoy bókhur [/bókhər]?     אַלְמָן הוּא אִם עוֹדוֹ בָּחוּר

❋

---

◊

Vernacularization (=Yiddishization) alone…

Ləràglov-époyl və-eshókeyn [/N: eshókn / S: eshúkn]      לְרַגְלָיו אֶפֹּל וְאֶשָּׁקֵן

Akh loy zókeyn, akh loy zókeyn [/N: zókn / S: zúkn]      אַךְ לֹא זָקֵן, אַךְ לֹא זָקֵן

---

See also Bialik’s Yiddish version of the poem (use handles to turn pages): 

Nit batog un nit banakht BIALIK

---

◊

◊

Ashkenazic Pleasure-Principle Variability

---

לפי הניב BY DIALECT

המיתני: hamisáyni ← hamiséyni (לכיוון דרומי, פּולין)

חידות: khídeys ← khídoys (לכיוון צפוני, ליטא)

---

  לפי הקצב או המשקל    BY RHYTHM AND SYLLABLIC STRUCTURE

הַבְמֶרְכָּבָה — havmerkóvo ∼ havəmerkóvo

---

  לְפיִ הַלָּשׁוֹן הְַּיהוּדִיתֿ (אידיש)   BY YIDISHIZATION  /  VERNACULARIZATION

To perfect the rhythm

יעבור — yáavoyr

או ל: yá:vər \ yá:voyr (לכיוון דרומי, פּולין)

 או ל-:

yáyvər \ yáyvoyr (לכיוון צפוני, ליטא)

◊

To repair defective rhyme 

Umà-tó-oroy, tsakh im shókhər?

àlmon-hú im óydoy bókhər?

בדרום:

(Umà-tó-oroy, tsakh im shúkhə(r 

(àlmon-hú im óydoy búkhə(r 

---

◊

◊

◊

Chaim Nachman Bialik’s Beír haharéygo

NOTE: In her Songs in Dark Times (Harvard University Press, 2020), Professor Amelia Glaser breaks the mold of arbitrarily recasting Ashkenazic poetry in an anachronous and inaccurate contemporary Israeli mold; see p. 54 etc.

בְּעִיר הַהֲרֵגָה

◊

Chaim Nachman Bialik’s Bisshuvósi

Note: See Alex Foreman’s youtube reading of the poem (and translation into English).

בִּתְֿשׁוּבָתִֿי  Bisshuvósi

• שׁוּב לְפָנַי: זָקֵן בָּלֶה,  Shuv ləfónay zókeyn bóle 
• פָּנִים צֹמְקִים וּמְצֹרָרִים,  Pónim tsoymkim umtsoyrórim
• צֵל קַשׁ יָבֵשׁ, נָד כְּעָלֶה,  Tseyl kash yóveysh, nod kəólo
• נָד וָנָע עַל־גַּבֵּי סְפָרִים. Nod vonó al gábey səfórim 
• שׁוּב לְפָנַי: זְקֵנָה בָלָה,  Shuv ləfónay: skéyno bólo
• אֹרְגָה, סֹרְגָה פֻזְמְקָאוֹתֿ,  Oyrgo, soyrgo puzməkóyoys
• פִּיהָ מָלֵא אָלָה, קְלָלָה,  Pího móley ólo, klólo
• וּשְׂפָתֶֿיהָ תָּמִיד נָעוֹתֿ. Usəfosého tómid nóoys
• וּכְמֵאָז לֹא מָשׁ מִמְּקוֹמוֹ  Ukhəmeyóz loy mosh mimkóymoy 
• חֲתֿוּל בֵּיתֵֿנוּ – עוֹדוֹ הֹזֶה     Khasul beyséynu — oydoy khóyze 
• בֵּין כִּירַיִם, וּבַחֲלוֹמוֹ  Beyn kiráyim uvakhalóymoy
• עִם־עַכְבָּרִים יַעַשׂ חֹזֶה.  Im aghbórim yáas khóyze
• וּכְמֵאָז בָּאֹפֶל מְתֿוּחִים  Ukhəmeyóz bo-óyfel məsúkhim
• קוּרֵי אֶרֶג הָעַכָּבִישׁ  Kúrey éreg ho-akóvish
• מְלֵאֵי פִּגְרֵי זְבוּבִים נְפוּחִים  Mley pígrey zvúvim nəfúkhim
• שָׁם בַּזָּוִיתֿ הַמַּעֲרָבִיתֿ… Shom bazóvis hamaaróvis
• לֹא שֻׁנֵּיתֶֿם מִקַּדְמַתְֿכֶם,  Loy shunéysem mikadmáskhem
• יָשָׁן נוֹשָׁן, אֵין חֲדָשָׁה; –   Yóshon nóyshon, eyn khadósho 
• אָבֹא, אַחַי, בְּחֶבְרַתְֿכֶם!  Óvoy, ákhay, bəkhevráskhem
• יַחְדָּו נִרְקַב עַד־נִבְאָשָׁה!   Yaghdov nirkav ad-nivósho

---

◊

◊

◊

 Yehudo Leyb Gordon   יהודה לייב גאָרדאָן  

הַסּוּס וְהַסִּיס

 

---

 

---

◊

Yehudo Leyb Gordon    יְהוּדָה לֵיבּ גאָרדאָן

Hasús Vǝhasís  הַסּוּס וְהַסִּיס

• ◊
• בִּהְיוֹתֿ בְּנֵי הָאָדָם  Bihyóys bney ho-ódom
  שָׂפָה אַחַתֿ וּדְבָרִים אֲחָדִים  Sófo ákhas udvórim akhódim
  לֹא נִכְשְׁלוּ בִּלְשׁוֹנָם  Loy níkhshǝlu bilshóynom
  וְלֹא נֶחְלְקוּ בְּרַעְיוֹנָם;  Vloy nékhlǝku bǝrayóynom 
• וּמִיּוֹם נִפְלְגָה הָאָרֶץ  U-miyóym níflǝgo hoórets
  לִלְשֹׁנוֹתָֿם לְגוֹייֵהֶם  Lilshoynóysom lǝgoyéyhem
  הִרְבָּה כּוֹשֵׁל בֵּינֵיהֶם  Hírbo kóyshl beynéyhem
  וַיִּרְחַב הַפָּרֶץ.  Vayírkhav hapórets
• ❊
• יֵשׁ גַּם בְּנֵי עַם אַחַד  Yeysh gám bney am ákhad
  יוֹשְׁבֵי מְדִינוֹתֿ שׁוֹנוֹתֿ  Yóyshvey mǝdínoys shóynoys
  אֵין לָהֶם לֵב לְיָחַד  Éyn lóhem leyv lǝyákhad
  מֵחֵלֶק שְׂפָתַֿיִם וְרִיב לְשֹׁנוֹתֿ:  Meykhéylek sfosáyim vǝrív lǝshóynoys
• הָאֶפְרָתִֿי מִבִּלְתִּי יְכֹלֶתֿ  Ho-efrósi mibílti yǝkhóyles
  לֵאמֹר שִׁבֹּלֶתֿ  Léymoyr shibóyles
  אָמַר סִבֹּלֶתֿ –  Ómar sibóyles
  וַיֹּאחֲזוּ בוֹ וַיִּשְׁחָטוּהוּ,  Va-yóykhazu bóy vayishkhotúhu
• וּבֶן-וָואהלִין קָרָא חִירִיק  Ubén Volín kóro khírik
  בִּמְקוֹם שֶׁבֶּן-לִיטָא קוֹרֵא שׁוּרֻק  Bímkoym she-ben-Líto kóyre shúruk
  וּלְבֵיתֿ-דִּין הֱבִיאוּהוּ. Ulǝbézdn heviúhu 
• ❊
• שְׁנֵי סֹחֲרִים בַּדֶּרֶךְ אָרָחוּ  Shney sóykhrim ba-dérekh orókhu 
• אֶל אַחַד הַיְּרִידִים יָרָדוּ,  El ákhad hayrídim yoródu
• וּשְׁנֵיהֶם יַחְדָּו הָלָכוּ  Ushnéyhem yákhdov holókhu
  אַף אִם לֹא נוֹעָדוּ.  af ím loy noyódu.
• הָאָחָד תֵּימָנִי מֵעִיר „מֵלִיטָא“   Hoékhod teymóni meyir Melíto
  הַשֵּׁנִי מִצָּפוֹן מֵעִיר מִלִּיטָא;  Hashéyni mitsófoyn meyir mi-Líto
• זֶה בָּא לִמְכּוֹר סְחוֹרָתֿוֹ   Ze bo límkoyr skhoyrósoy
  וָזֵה לִקְנוֹת סְחוֹרָה מְגַמָּתֿוֹ.  Vozé líknoys skhóyro mǝgamósoy.
  וַיְהִי בַדֶּרֶךְ וַיֹּאמֶר הַצְּפוֹנִי:  Vayǝhí badérekh vayóymer hatsfóyni
  „אֱמָר-נָא לִי, אֲדֹנִי, Emóyr no lí adóyni
  מַה-חֶפְצְךָ בַּשּׁוּק וּבשְׁבִיל מַה בָּאתָֿ?“  Ma khéftsǝkho bashúk ubíshvil ma bóso
• וַיַּעַן הַדְּרוֹמִי: רְצוֹנִי  Vayáan hadróymi: Rǝtsóyni
  לִקְנוֹתֿ סִוס^*) טוֹב בְּמָנָה אוֹ בְּמָאתַֿיִם —  líknoys sis toyv bǝmóno oy bǝmosáyim 
• „לֹא יָגַעְתָּ וּמָצָאתָֿ“  Loy yogáto umotsóso 
  (הַדֹּבֵר בּוֹ יַעֲנֵהוּ), (Hadóyver bóy yaanéyhu)
  „יֵשׁ אִתִּי סִיס כָּזֶה, תַּאֲוָה לָעֵינַיִם,  Yeysh ití sis kozé, táyvo loeynáyim
  אִם תַּחְפֹּץ בִּמְחִיר זֶה קָחֵהוּ“.  Im tákhpoyts bimkhír ze kokhéyhu
• וַיַּאֲמֵן בּוֹ הַקּוֹנֶה וַיֵאוֹתֿ  Vayámeyn boy hakóyne vayéyoys
  וַיִּקְנֵהוּ מֵאִתּוֹ בְּלִי רְאוֹתֿ, Vayiknéyhu meyítoy bli réyoys
  וַיִּתֵּן כַּסְפּוֹ שְׁתֵּי מֵאוֹתֿ.  Vayíteyn káspoy shtey méyoys
• בַּיּוֹם הַשֵּׁנִי לְמָחֳרָתֿוֹ  Bayóym hashéyni lǝmokhorósoy
• הֵבִיא הַמּוֹכֵר אֶתֿ סְחוֹרָתֿוֹ héyvi hamóykheyr es skhoyrósoy 
• כְּנַף רְנָנִים נֶעֳלָסָה  Knaf rǝnónim neelóso
  נֶהְדָּרָה בְּנֹצָתָֿהּ  Nehdóro bǝnoytsóyso 
• וַיֹּאמֶר הַתֵּימָנִי בְּתִמָּהוֹן:  Vayóymer hateymóni bǝtimóǝn
  הֲרַמַּאי אַתָּה אוֹ מֻכֵּה שִׁגָּעוֹן?  Harámay áto oy múke shigóǝn 
• לֹא סִיס הַיּוֹשֵׁב בַּכְּלוּב קָנִיתִֿי Loy sis hayóysheyv bakúv konísi
• כִּי אִם סִוס הָעוֹמֵד בָּאֻרְוָה אִוִּיתִֿי. –   Ki im sis hoóymeyd boúrvo ivísi 
• „לֹא“, טָעַן הַצְּפוֹנִי, „לֹא רִמִּיתִֿיךָ,   Loy,  tóan hatsfóyni,  Loy rimisíkho
• כִּי לֹא כֵן אָנֹכִי עִמָּדִי;   Ki lóy keyn onóykhi imódi 
  סיס אָמַרְתָּ בְּפִיךָ  Sis omárto bǝpíkho
  וְסִיס הֵבֵאתִֿי בְּיָדִי“.   vǝsis heyvéysi bǝyódi
• וַיִּנָּצוּ יַחְדָּו וַיָּרִיבוּ  Vayinótsu yakhdóv vayorívu
  וּדְבָרָם אֶל הָרַב הִקְרִיבוּ.  Udvorom el haróv hikrívu 
  הַקֹּנֶה תָּבַע שֶׁיַּחֲזִיר לוֹ הַמָּעוֹתֿ,   Hakóyne tóva sheyákhzir loy hamóoys
  לְפִי שֶׁהִטְעָהוּ בְּיוֹתֵֿר מִשְׁתּוּתֿ,   Lǝfi shehitóhu bǝyóyseyr mishtús
  אַךְ הָרַב פָּסַק שֶׁאֵין זֶה אֶלָּא שְׁטוּתֿ,  akh haróv pósak sheéyn ze élo shtùs
  וּלְפִיכָךְ – אֵין הַמֶּקַח מֶקַח טָעוּתֿ.  Ulfíkhokh ― Eyn hamékah mékakh tóùs 
• הַקּוֹרֵא בְּוַדַּאי  Hakóyrey bǝváday
  יִקְרָאֵנִי בַּדַּאי,  Yikroéyni báday
  כִּי הֲיִתָּכֵן  Ki: Hayǝtókhn
  שֶׁבִּשְׁבִיל נְקוּדָה קְטַנָּה אַחַתֿ   shebíshvil nəkúdo ktáno akhás
  יָבֹאוּ שְׁנֵי אֲנָשִׁים גְּדוֹלִים  Yovóyu shney anóshim gdóylim
  לִמְרִיבָה מִתְֿלַקַּחַתֿ  Limrívo mislakákhas
  וּלְבֵיתֿ-דִּין יִהְיוּ עוֹלִים?  ulbézdn yíyhu óylim
• ❊
• אָכֵן  Okhéyn
  מֶה כָּל הַמַּחֲלֹקוֹתֿ שֶׁהָיוּ בִּיהוּדָה  Me kol hamakhlóykoys shehóyu biYhúdo
  אִם לֹא בִּשְׁבִיל אֵיזוּ אוֹתֿ אוֹ נְקוּדָה.  Im loy bishvil éyzu óys oy nǝkúdo
• פֵּרוּשִׁים קְלוּשִׁים וְדִקְדּוּקִים דַּקִּין,   Peyrúshim klúshim vǝdikdúkim dákin
  אֵתִֿין וְגַמִּין אֲכִין וְרַקִּין?  Éysin vǝgámin ákhin vǝrákin
• בִּשְׁבִיל מַה בְּשָׁנִים רִאשׁוֹנוֹתֿ  Bishvil má bǝshónim rishóynoys
  נִקְרַע בֵּיתֿ יִשְׂרָאֵל לִקְרָעִים  Nikrá Beys Yisróeyl likǝróyim
  וַיְהִי לְכִתּוֹתֿ שׁוֹנוֹתֿ  Vayhí lǝkítoys shóynoys
  לִפְרוּשִׁים וּצְדוּקִים, רַבָּנִים, קָרָאִים?  LǝPrúshim uTsdúkim, rabónim, karóim
• גַּם בְּיָמֵינוּ עָתָּה  Gam bǝyoméynu óto
  מַה כָּל הַקְּטָטָה  Me kol haktóto
  בֵּין יַעֲקֹב בְּנָהּ שֶׁל „מוּשָׁה“^**)  Beyn Yánkoyv bnó shel Músho
  וּבֵין יַעֲקֹב בֶּן אֶלְקָנָה?  Uveyn Yánkoyv bén Elkóno
• יַעַן לֹא יֹאמַר „כֶּתֶֿר“ בִּקְדֻשָּׁה  Yáan loy yóymar “késer” biKdúsho
• וּבְקַדִּישׁ — „יַצְמַח פֻּרְקָנָא“!  UvǝKádish ― yítsmakh purkóno
• __________________

*) סיס קרי.     **) שם אשה.

---

◊

Naftoli Hertz Imber נפתחי הערץ אימבר

◊

Naftoli Hertz Imber’s Hatikvoh (Hatikvah)

הַתִּקְוָה

SUNG IN 2021 BY

JOANNA CZABAN  |  אַשקע טשאַבאַן

MOSHE KOUSSEVITZKY

by AL JOLSON

Note differences: MK’s adherence to authentic Ashkenazic ‘oy for וֹ’ and plosive תּ word-initially (in תִּקְוָתֵֿינוּ) despite Tiberian cross-word-boundary spirantization norm).

◊

◊

◊

 

• Kol-òyd baléyvov — pənímo
  
• Nèfesh-yəhúdi —hoymíyo
• ulfaàsey-mízrokh — kodímo
• àyin-lətsíyoyn — Tsoyfíyo.
• ◊
• ❊
• ◊
• Oyd-lòy óvdo — tikvoséynu,
• hàtíkvo — hanoyshóno,
• lòshuv-ləérets — [èrets-] avoyséynu,
• ìr-bo Dóvid — [Dòvid-] khóno.

---

• • ◊

  • In Warsaw Ashkenazic Hebrew

    • ◊
    • Kol-òyd baláyvov — pənímu
      
    • Nèyfesh-yəhídi —hoymíyu
    • ulfaàsay-mízrokh — kudímu
    • à:(y)in-lətsíyoyn — Tsoyfíyu.
    • ◊
    • ❊
    • ◊
    • Òyd-loy óvdu — tikvusáyni,
    • hatìkvu — hanoyshúnu,
    • lùshiv-ləéyrets — [èyrets-] avoysáyni,
    • ìr-bu Dúvit — [Dùvit-] khúnu.

  • ---

  • ◊

  • In Vilna Ashkenazic Hebrew

  • ◊
  • Kol-èyd baléyvov — pənímo
    
  • Nèfesh-yəhúdi — heymíyo
  • ulfaàsey-mízrokh — kodímo
  • àyin-lətsíyeyn — Tseyfíyo.
  • ◊
  • ❊
  • ◊
  • Èyd-ley óvdo — tikvoséynu,
  • hatìkvo — haneyshóno,
  • lòshuv-ləérets — [èrets-] aveyséynu,
  • ìr-bo Dóvid — [Dòvid-] khóno.

---

One of the versions of the entire poem

(published by Mazin’s of London, courtesy of Hebrew National & University Library, Jerusalem)

◊

The vowel pointing of the following version generally follows the original, with some occasional deviation resulting from popular rendition.

*

• כָּל עוֹד בַּלֵּבָב פְּנִימָה      Kol oyd baléyvov p’nímo 
  נֶפֶשׁ יְהוּדִי הוֹמִיָּה      Néfesh yəhúdi hoymiyo  
  וּלְפַאֲתֵֿי מִזְרָח קָדִימָה      Ulfáasey mízrokh kodímo  
  עַיִן לְצִיּוֹן צוֹפִיָּה.      Áyin l’tsíyoyn tsoyfiyo  
• ❋
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ      Oyd loy óvdo tikvoséynu
  הַתִּקְוָה הַנּוֹשָׁנָה      Hatíkvo hanoyshóno
  לָשׁוּב לְאֶרֶץ — אֶרֶץ אֲבוֹתֵֿינוּ      lóshuv l’érets — érets avoyséynu 
  לָעִיר בָּהּ דָּוִד — דָּוִד חָנָה.      Lo-ír bó Dóvid — Dóvid khóno
• ❋
• כָּל עוֹד דְּמָעוֹתֿ מֵעֵינֵינוּ      Kol oyd d’móoys mey-eynéynu 
  יִזְּלוּ כְּגֶשֶׁם נְדָבוֹתֿ      Yízlu  k’géshem nədóvoys
  וּרְבָבוֹתֿ מִבְּנֵי עַמֵּנוּ      Ur’vóvoys mibney améynu 
  עוֹד הוֹלְכִים עַל קִבְרֵי אָבוֹתֿ.      Oyd hóylkhim al kívrey óvoys 
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ…
• ❋
• כָּל עוֹד חוֹמַתֿ מַחֲמַדֵּינוּ      Kol oyd khóymas makhmadéynu
  לְעֵינֵינוּ מוֹפַעַתֿ      L’eynéynu moyfáas
  וְעֲל חוּרְבַּן מִקְדָּשֵׁנוּ      V’al khúrban migdoshéynu
  עַיִן אַחַתֿ עוֹד דּוֹמַעַתֿ.      Áyin ákhas oyd doymáas
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ…
• ❋
• כָּל עוֹד מֵי הַיַּרְדֵּן בְּגָאוֹן      Kol oyd mey-hayárdeyn b’gó-oyn
  מְלֹא גְּדוֹתָֿיו יִזֹלוּ      m’loy g’dóysov yizóylu
  וּלְיַם כִּנֶּרֶתֿ בְּשָׁאוֹן      Ul’yam kinéres b’shó-oyn  
  בְּקוֹל הֲמֻלָּה יִפֹּלוּ.      B’koyl hamúlo yipóylu
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ…
• ❋
• כָּל עוֹד שָׁמָּה עֲלֵי דְּרָכַיִם      Kol oyd shómo áley d’rokháyim
  שַׁעַר יֻכַּתֿ שְׁאִיָּה      Sháar yúkas sh’íyo
  וּבֵין חוּרְבוֹתֿ יְרוּשָׁלַיִם      Uveyn khúrvoys y’rusholáyim 
  עוֹד בַּתֿ⸗צִיּוֹן בּוֹכִיָּה.      Oyd bas-tsíyoyn boykhíyo
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ…
• ❋
• כָּל עוֹד דְּמָעוֹתֿ טְהוֹרוֹתֿ      Kol oyd d’mó-oys t’hóyroys 
  מֵעֵין בַּתֿ עַמִּי נוֹזְלוֹתֿ      Mey-eyn bas-ámi nóyzloys
  וְלִבְכּוֹתֿ לְצִיּוֹן בְּרֹאש אַשְׁמוֹרוֹתֿ      V’lífkoys l’tsíyoyn broysh ashmóyroys
  עוֹד תָּקוּם בַּחֲצִי הַלֵּילוֹתֿ.      Oyd tókum bakhátsi haléyloys
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ…
• ❋
• כָּל עוֹד נִטְפֵי דָם בְּעוֹרְקֵינוּ      Kol oyd nítfey dom b’oyrkéynu 
• רָצוֹא וָשׁוֹב יִזֹלוּ      Rótsoy voshoyv yizóylu
• וַעֲלֵי קִבְרוֹתֿ אֲבוֹתֵֿינוּ      Va-áley kívroys avoyséynu
• עוֹד אָגְלֵי טַל יִפּוֹלוּ.      Oyd ógley tal yipóylu
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ…
• ❋
• כָּל עוֹד רֶגֶשׁ אַהֲבַתֿ הַלְּאוֹם      Kol oyd régesh á(ha)vas-hal’óym
  בְּלֵב הַיְּהוּדִי פּוֹעֵם      B’leyv hay’húdi póyeym
  עוֹד נוּכַל קַווֹתֿ גַּם הַיּוֹם      Oyd núkhal kávoys gam hayóym 
  כִּי יְרַחֲמֵנוּ אֵל זוֹעֵם.      Ki y’rakhméynu eyl zóyeym
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵנוּ…
• ❋
• שִׁמְעוּ אַחַי בְּאַרְצוֹתֿ נוּדִי      Shímu ákhay b’ártsoys núdi
  אֶתֿ קוֹל אַחַד חוֹזֵינוּ      Es koyl ákhad khoyzéynu
  „כִּי רַק עַם אַחֲרוֹן הַיְּהוּדִי      Ki rák am ákhroyn hay’húdi 
  גַּם אַחֲרִיתֿ תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ“.      Gam ákhris tikvoséynu
• עוֹד לֹא אָבְדָה תִּקְוָתֵֿנוּ…

---

◊

Meyshe Kulbak: Three Hebrew Poems

With thanks to Siarhej Shupa (Prague) for providing these redsicovered Hebrew texts to be included in his forthcoming bilingual (Yiddish–Belarusian) edition of all of Kulbak’s poetry. These three poems, the only to have survived of Kulbak’s (early) Hebrew output, were first published in Di goldene keyt. Based on the Northern (Litvak) rhyme of בְּאֵרִי with מְזוֹרִי (as unitary ej) in the second poem, holem is transcribed ey throughout as per Kulbak’s Vilna area Yiddish and Hebrew.

◊

גַן סְתָּו. שְׁבִיל שְׁטוּף⸗הַצֵל…

Gan stov. Shvil shtuf-hatséyl

• גַן סְתָּו. שְׁבִיל שְׁטוּף⸗הַצֵל.  Gan stov. Shvil shtuf-hatséyl
• אַתְּ, אֲנִי, וּדְמִי הַלֵיל.  At. Ani, udmi haleyl 
• כֶּסֶף-חַי בֵּין עֲלֵי פָּז.  Kesef-khay beyn aley-póz 
• אַתְּ, אֲנִי, וּטְהוֹר הָרָז…  At, ani, uthoyr horóz
• יָד חֲרֵדָה, מַבַּט כְּאֵב,   Yad karéydo, mabat kəéyv
• אַתְּ, אֲנִי, וּנְהִי הַלֵב.  At, ani, unəhi ha-léyv
• סַהַר נוּגֶה, מִלַת דֹם. Sahar nugo, milas déym 
• אַתְּ, אֲנִי, וּנְשִׁיקַת-חֹם.  At,  ani, unshíkas khéym 

ר”ח חשון

---

  דַי אֵחָבֵא

Day Eykhóvey 

דַי! אֵחָבֵא אֶל הַכֵּלִים‪

• ◊
• Day! Eykhóvey el hakéylim   דַי! אֵחָבֵא אֶל הַכֵּלִים
• Shókto bəéyri…    …שָׁקְטָה בְּאֵרִי
• Keshéykh ho-érev éteyn yod   כְּשֹׁךְ הָעֶרֶב אֶתֵּן יָד
• Beléyv məzéyri   בְּלֶב מְזוֹרִי
• *
• Gàley-mtsúlo shkhèyr-gabéykhem   גַלֵּי מְצוּלָה! — שְׁחוֹר גַבֵּיכָם
• Rad al zhóvi.  .רַד עַל זְהָבִי
• Khòrpi mámtin bèyn hashlógim…   …חָרְפִּי מַמְתִּין בֵּין הַשְׁלָגִים
• Ləát — Lvóvi!   !לְאַט — לְבָבִי
• *
• Lu evóseyr eyr la-láylo   לוּ אֶוָתֵֿר עֵר לַלַּיְלָה
• Maaváyi   מַאֲוַיִי
• Rəvàs-ha-néneshef eysht beyn tslólim   רְוַתֿ-הַנֶשֶׁף אֵשְׁתְּ בֵּין צְלָלִים
• Ukhvor dáyi.   .וּכְבָר דַיִי
• *
• Kòvu nəúray bətsèyl ha-khúrsheys  כָּבוּ נְעוּרַי בְּצֵל הַחֻרְשׁוֹתֿ
• Bəeyd haplógim…     …בְּאֵד הַפְּלָגִים
• Khòrpi mámtin bəkhèrdas-sháyish    חָרְפִּי מַמְתִּין בְּחֶרְדַּתֿ-שַׁיִשׁ
• Beyn hashlógim.    .בֵּין הַשְׁלָגִים

---

◊

בְּאַפְלוּלִיתֿ לֵיל אֵט עַתָּה אָהֳלִי‪…

Bəaflúlis leyl eyt ato ohóli

בְּאַפְלוּלִיתֿ לֵיל אֵט עַתָּה אָהֳלִי,   Bəaflúlis leyl eyt ato ohóli

וְתֿוּגָה נוּגָה, רַכָּה עֶדְנַתֿ-כְָּנָף תִּשְׁמֹר סִפִּי… Vəsugo nugo, rako ednas-konof tishmeyr sipi 

לַיְלָה.   Láylo

חֶרֶשׁ, חֶרֶשׁ אֵצֵא אֶתֿ מְעוֹנִי  Khéresh khéresh éytsey es məéyni

אָלִיט יָד בְּיָד, olit yod bəyod

וּמִשְׁנֵה דְמָמָה אִדֹם:  umishney dəm omo odeym 

אַלְלַי לִי!  Aləlay li

דִמְעָה זַכָּה נִצְנְצָה בִּבְרַק⸗צְנִיעוּתָֿהּ.  Dímo záko nitsnətso bivrak-tsniyúso

אַךְ בִּן לַיְלָה  Akh bin láylo

חָרְדָה וְנִדְלָחָה… Khórdo vənidlokho 

ּבַּמִסְתָּרִים פִּרְפְּרָה בִּדְמִי יְגוֹנָה נֶפֶשׁ תַּמָה, Bamistórim pirəro bidmey yegeyno nefesh tamo 

רֶטֶט חַי עֲבָרָהּ וַתִּתְֿיַתֵּם…  Retet khay avoro vətisyáteym

אָחִי, אָחִי, לֵיל נְדוּדִים! Okhi okhi, leyl nidudim 

תְּכֶלְתְּךָ צַק לִי, רְוֵה נִשְׁמָתִי, וּבְהֶמְיָתְֿךָ רָן-נְכָאִים… Tkheyltəkho tsak li, revey nishmosi, uvəhemyoskho ron-nəkhóyim

דְמָמָה טְמִירָה, סֹבִּי דַלְתֵֿי לַיְלָה —  Dmomo tmiro, seybi dalsey laylo

וְאֶל שְפוּנֵי שְׁחוֹר הַַתְּהוֹמוֹת שְאִי יְגוֹנִי  Vəel shfuni shokheyr hatəheymeys səi yəgeni 

יְגוֹן הַנֶפֶשׁ הָעֲיֵפָה…   Yəgeyn ha-nefesh ho-ayeyfo 

ּבְּגַעֲגוּעֵי-רְתֵֿתֿ אֲַחַכֶּה לָךְ…  Bəgaguey-təseys akháke lokh

וָאֵבְךְ.    Vo-eyvkh

בְּכִי עוֹלָל רַךְ עַל קֶבֶר אִמוֹ… Bəkhi eyleyl rakh al kever imey

ּוּבְהָנֵץ חַמָה, שוּלֵי שְׁמֵי מֶרְחַקִים יֶחֱוָרוּ, uvhoneyts khamo, shuli shmi merkhakim  yokhevoru

גַל זִיו וְכֶסֶף יַךְ וְיִז בְּדִמְדוּמֵי שַׁחַר… Gal ziv v-khesef yakh v’yaz bədimdimey shákhar 

אֲנִי — עֲרִירִי, Ani — ariri 

וּלְבָדָד אֵלֵךְ עִם יְגוֹנִי,  ulvodod eylekh im yegeyni

וְאֲתַֿנֶה חֶרֶשׁ כְּאֵב לְבָבִי בִדְמִי הַלֵיל Vəesáne khéresh kəeyv ləvóvi bidmi haleyl 

בִּכְאֵב הָעוֹלָם…  Bikhəeyv ho-eylom

ר”ח חשון

◊

---

 

◊

Saul Tchernichovsky

◊

Sákhki Sákhki   שחקי שחקי

◊

SUNG (2021) BY

JOANNA CZABAN  |  אַשקע טשאַבאַן

SIDOR BELARSKY  (with American Ashkenazic oy:> o(u):)

◊

◊

• The vowel pointing of the following version generally follows the original, with some occasional deviation resulting from popular rendition.

 

• שַׂחְקִי, שַׂחְקִי עַל הַחֲלוֹמוֹתֿ     Sákhki, sákhki, al hakhalóymoys   
• זוּ אֲנִי הַחוֹלֵם שָֹח     Zu aní ha-khóyleym sókh 
• שַׂחְקִי כִּי בָּאָדָם אַאֲמִין     Sּákhki-kí bo-ódom áymin   
• כִּי עוֹדֶנִּי מַאֲמִין בָּךְ     Ki oydéni máymin bókh  
• *
• כִּי עוֹד נַפְשִׁי דְּרוֹר שׁוֹאֶפֶתֿ     Ki oyd náfshi dróyr shoyéfes  
• לֹא מְכַרְתִּיהָ לְעֵגֶל פָּז     loy mkhartího léygel póz    
• כִּי עוֹד אַאֲמִין גַּם בָּאָדָם     Ki òyd áymin gam bo-ódom  
• גַּם בְּרוּחוֹ, רוּחַ עָז     Gam b’rúkhoy, rúakh óz   
• *
• רוּחוֹ יַשְׁלִיךְ כַּבְלֵי הֶבֶל     Rúkhoy yáshlikh kávley hével 
• יְרוֹמְמֶנּוּ בָּמְתֵֿי עָל     Y’róyməménu bómsey ól 
• לֹא בָּרָעָב יָמוּתֿ עוֹבֵד     Loy bo-róov yòmus óyveyd   
• דְּרוֹר – לַנֶּפֶשׁ, פַּתֿ – לַדָּל     Droyr  — lanéfesh, pas — ladól   
• *
• שַׂחְקִי כִּי גַּם בְּרֵעוּתֿ אַאֲמִין     Sàkhki-kí gam brèyus áymin   
• אַאֲמִין, כִּי עוֹד אֶמְצָא לֵב     Àymin-kí oyd èmtso léyv   
• לֵב תִּקְוֹתַֿי גַּם תִּקְוֹתָֿיו     Leyv tikvóysay, gam tikvóysov  
• יָחוּשׁ אֹשֶׁר, יָבִין כְּאֵב     Yókhush óysher, yòvin kéyv   
• *
• אַאֲמִינָה גַּם בֶּעָתִֿיד     Aamíno gam be-ósid  
• אַף אִם יִרְחַק זֶה הַיּוֹם     Af im yírkhak ze hayóym   
• אַךְ בֹּא יָבוֹא – יִשְּׂאוּ שָׁלוֹם     Akh boy-yóvoy — yísu shóloym  
• אָז, וּבְרָכָה לְאֹם מִלְאֹם     Oz, uvrókho l’óym-milóym  
• *
• יָשׁוּב יִפְרַח אָז גַּם עַמִּי     Yóshuv yífrakh oz gam ámi 
• וּבָאָרֶץ יָקוּם דּוֹר     Uvo-órets yókum dóyr  
• בַּרְזֶל כְּבָלָיו יוּסַר מֶנּוּ     Bàrzel-kvólov yúsar ménu  
• עַיִן בְּעַיִן יִרְאֶה אוֹר     Ayin-b’áyin yíre óyr   
• *
• יִחְיֶה, יֶאֱהַב, יִפְעַל, יָעַשׂ     Yìkhye, yéhav, yífal, yóas 
• דּוֹר בָּאָרֶץ אָמְנָם חַי     dóyr bo-órets ómnom kháy 
• לֹא בֶּעָתִֿיד – בַּשָּׁמַיִם     loy be-ósid — bashomáyim  
• חַיֵּי רוּחַ לוֹ אֵין דַּי     Kháyey-rúakh loy eyn dáy  
• *
• אָז שִׁיר חָדָשׁ יָשִׁיר מְשׁוֹרֵר     Oz shir-khódosh yóshir mshóyreyr  
• לְיֹפִי וְנִשְׂגָּב לִבּוֹ עֵר     L’yòyfi-vnízgov líboy éyr   
• לוֹ, לַצָּעִיר, מֵעַל קִבְרִי     Loy, la-tsóir, méy-al kívri   
• פְּרָחִים יִלְקְטוּ לַזֵּר     Prókhim yilk’tu la-zéyr 
• ◊

• See also Y. Y. Shvarts’s Yiddish translation (as PDF). 

---

◊

Avrom-Eyliohu Kaplan

◊

Shóko Khámo  שקעה חמה

◊

שָׁקְעָה חַמָּה שָׁקְעָה נַפְשִׁי     Shóko khámo, shóko náfshi
בִּתְֿהוֹם יְגוֹנָהּ הָרַב כַּיָּם     bis’hóym y’góyno horáv kayóm
כִּי עוֹמְדָה לִפֹּל הִיא בְּמִלְחַמְתָּהּ     ki ómdo lípoyl hi b’milkhámto
אֶתֿ הַבָּשָׂר וְאֶתֿ הַדָּם     es habósor v’es hadóm 

יָמַי עוֹבְרִים יָמַי כַּלִים     yómay óyvrim yómay kálim
מִבְּלִי קַחַתֿ מִבְּלִי תֵּתֿ     mibli-kákhas mibli-téys
אִם לָזֹאתֿ קָרָאתָֿ חַיִּים     im lozóys koróso kháyim
אֱמֹר נָא אֵלִי מַה זֶּה מֵתֿ?     ?emóyr-no éyli má-ze méys 

חוּסָה אֵלִי כִּי לֹא אֵדַע     Khúso éyli ki loy éyda
אֵיכָה אוּכַל כֹּה לִחְיוֹתֿ     éykho úkhal koy likhyóys
הָאִם לִשְׁכֹּחַ כֹּל וּשְׂמֹחַ     hoím lishkóyakh kóyl us’móyakh
אוֹ לִזְכֹּר הַכֹּל וּבְכוֹתֿ?     ?oy lískoyr hakóyl uf’khóys

הַחֲיֵינִי אֵלִי נָא לְמָחָר     hakhayéyni éyli no l’mókhor
אוּלַי אֶפְתֹּר אֶתֿ הַחֲלוֹם     ulay éftoyr es hakh’lóym
שָׁקְעָה חַמָּה עָבִים בָּאִים     shóko khámo óvim bó(y)im
לַיְלָה עוֹלֶה מִן הַתְּהוֹם     láylo óylo min hat’hoym

◊

IN THE AUTHOR’S NATIVE LITHUANIAN ASHKENAZIC HEBREW

◊◊

SUNG BY

JOANNA (ASHKE) CZABAN

ABISH BRODT;  S.Y. RECHNITZ & M. MENDLOWITZ; 2ND VERSION WITH ADDED (“NON-MUSER”) TEXT

◊

---

---

◊

◊

USAGE

Notes on Morphology, Lexicon, Semantics, Syntax, Usage

◊

Morphology

→

1 Nominal Paradigms

One of the most pronounced features of Ashkenazic morphology is  a predilection for choosing, and more saliently, coining within Ashkenazic society, agentives of the template CáCon. A list of several dozen such nouns which seem to have no (or hardly any) pre-Ashkenazic antecedents was compiled by Yudel Mark in 1958 and has never been seriously challenged (Y. Mark, “Yidish-hebreyishe un hebreyish-yidishe nayshafungen” in Bikl & Lehrer’s (eds) Shmuel Niger Bukh (Yivo: N.Y. 1958,  pp. 124-157, esp. pp. 133-138). The paradigm, beloved also in Yiddish, can feminize in Ashkenazic either by classical suffix -is (< Tiberian  -ִִīθ), by Aramaic origin -to (< tɔ:), and occasionally, by both. It can began an abstract noun via suffixation of clssical -us (< ūθ). It often further begats an abstract noun (frequently a description of the profession, character or attributes expressedin the agentive per se. The paradigm remains productive to this day. Here, as an example, is בַּדּחָן [bádkhon] or, more frequently via regressive voice assimilation [bátkhon]:

בַּדְחָן [bátkhon] ‘jester at wedding and other occasions’  

(ל″ר: בַּדְחָנִים [batkhónim]); ל″נ: בַּדְחָניתֿ [batkhónis], בְַּדְחָנְתָּא [bátkhonto], בַּדׂחָניתְֿתָּא  [batkhónisto] (ל″ר: בַּדְחָנִיוֹתֿ [batkhón(i)yoys], בְַּדְחָנְתָּאוֹתֿ [batkhontóoys]) ←

בַּדְחָנוּתֿ [batkhónus] ‘profession (/character/effects etc.) of the jester’.

❊

The examples assembled by Mark (ibid, pp. 135-136) include the following (for which the abstract-noun derivates have been added but not the feminines or plurals, cf. entries in the evolving  Ashkenazic Hebrew Dictionary.

בַַּדְחָן [bátkhon], [bádkhon] ← בַַּדְחָנוּתֿ [batkhónus], [badkhónus]

בַּעֲלָן [bá(a)lon], [báylon] ← בַּעֲלָנוּתֿ [baalónus] (\ בַּעֲלוּתֿ [bá(y)lus])

בַּדְקָן [bátkon], [bátkon] ← בַּדְקָנוּתֿ [batkónus] (\בַּדְקוּתֿ [bátkus], [bádkus])

גַּדּלָן [gádlon] ← גַּדּלָנוּתֿ [gadlónus] (\ גַּדְלוּתֿ [gádlus])

חַלָפָן [khálfon] ← חַלָפָנוּתֿ [khalfónus]

חַנְפָן [khánfon] ← חַנְפָנוּתֿ [khanfónus] (\חֲנִיפָה [khanífo], [khənífo])

יַדְעָן [yádon] ← יַדְעָנוּתֿ [yadónus] (\יַדְעוּתֿ [yádus])

יַחְסָן [yákhson] ← יַחְסָנוּתֿ [yakhsónus]

יַקְרָן [yákron] ← יַקְרָנוּתֿ [yakrónus] (\ יַקְרוּתֿ [yákrus])

יַשְׁרָן [yáshron] ← יַשְׁרָנוּתֿ [yashrónus] (\יַשְׁרוּתֿ [yáshrus])

לַמְדָּן [lámdon] ← לַמְדָּנוּתֿ [lamdónus] (\ לוֹמְדּותֿ [ló(y)mdus])

לַקְחָן [lákkhon] ← לַקְחָנוּתֿ [lakkhónus]

נַדְבָן [nádvon] ← נַדְבָנוּתֿ [nadvónus]

פַּזְרָן [pázron] ← פַּזְרָנוּתֿ [pazrónus] 

פּחְדָן [pákhdon] ← פּחְדָנוּתֿ [pakhdónus]

פַּשְׁטָן [páshton] ← פַּשְׁטָנוּתֿ [pashtónus]

פַּשְׁרָן [páshron] ← פַּשְׁרָנוּתֿ [pashrónus]

קַבְּצָן [káptson], [kábtson] ← קַבְּצָנוּתֿ [kaptsónus], [kabtsónus]

קַבְּרָן [kábron] ← קַבְּרָנוּתֿ [kabrónus] 

שַׁדְכָן [shátkhon], [shádkhon] ← שַׁדְכָנוּתֿ [shatkhónus], [shadkhónus]

שְׁתַּדְלָן [shtádlon] ← שְׁתַּדְלָנוּתֿ [shtadlónus] 

תַּפְסָן [táfson] ← תַּפְסָנוּתֿ [tafsónus]

❉

NOTE: In smaller 21se century Ashkenazic circles, this classic Ashkenazic template remains productive especially where some humor, irony, satire or deprecation (of oneself or others) are the order of the day. Some recent examples:

hacker: הַקְרָן [hákron], pl. הַקְרָנִים [hakrónim]

(far) lefty שְֹמאֹלָן [smóylon], pl. שְֹמאֹלָנִים [smoylónim]

(far ) righty יַמְיְמָן [yámyəmon], pl. יַמְיְמָנִים {yamyəmónim]

hotshot: גַּדְלָן [gádlon], pl. גַּדְלָנִים [gadlónim] 

politician who would say/do anything: (ּשַׁקְרָנְ(יָהו [shákron(yóhu)], souther dial. [shákron(yú:hi:)]

troll: נַדְנָן  [nádnon], pl. נַדְנָנִים [nadnónim]

wannabbee: חַפְצָן [kháftson], pl.  חַפְצָנִים [khaftsónim]

---

◊

2 Mobilization of בַּעַל as productive prefix.

In the same 1958 study (pp. 128-133), Mark identified the mobilization of בַּעַל (biblically ‘owner’, ‘husband’ or ‘the god Baal,’ in later times also an indicator of attribute, profession, character based on the ensuing nominal component) as productive nominal prefix in Ashkenazic society. Mark was of course concerned with Yiddish (where בעל to this day can be joined to non-Semitic nouns, e.g. בעל⸗הבאַנקעט  (bal-habankét ‘master of the banquet’). The following are Mark’s examples, all typical of Ashkenazic Hebrew where they developed, generally speaking, simultaneously in Ashkenazic Hebrew and in Yiddish, but with much wider distribution and applicability in ongoing new coinages in the Hebrew.

בַַּעַל⸗בָּטוּחַ [bà(a)l-botúakh]

בַַּעַל⸗דַּבְּרָן [bà(a)l-dábron]

בַַּעַל⸗דַּרְשָׁן [bà(a)l-dárshon]

בַַּעַל⸗חַי [bà(a)l-kháy]

בַַּעַל⸗חַיּיָב [bà(a)l-kháyov]

בַַּעַל⸗יַחֲסָן [bà(a)l-yákhson]

בַַּעַל⸗יוֹעֵץ [bà(a)l-yóyeyts]

בַַּעַל⸗כַּעֲסָן [bà(a)l-káyson]

בַַּעַל⸗מַאֲמִין [bà(a)l-máymin]

בַַּעַל⸗מְגַזֵּם [bà(a)l-m(ə)gázeym]

בַַּעַל⸗מַגִּיהַ [bà(a)l-magíha]

בַַּעַל⸗מְדַקְדֵּק [bà(a)l-mədágdeyk]

בַַּעַל⸗מְחַבֵּר [bà(a)l-m(ə)khábeyr]

בַַּעַל⸗מְטוּפָּל [bà(a)l-m(ə)túpol]

בַַּעַל⸗מַכְְְְניִס⸗אוֹרֵחַ [bà(a)l-màkhnisoyréyakh]

בַַּעַל⸗מְכַשֵׁף [bà(a)l-m(ə)khásheyf]

בַַּעַל⸗מְנַגֵּן [bà(a)l-m(ə)nágeyn]

בַַּעַל⸗מַסְבִּיר [bà(a)l-mázbir]

בַַּעַל⸗מְפוּנָק [bà(a)l-m(ə)fúnok]

בַַּעַל⸗מַפְטִיר [bà(a)l-máftir]

בַַּעַל⸗מַצְלִיחַ [bà(a)l-matslíyakh]

בַַּעַל⸗מְקוּבָּל [bà(a)l-m(ə)kúbol]

בַַּעַל⸗מְקַנֶּא [bà(a)l-m(ə)káne]

בַַּעַל⸗מַקְרִיא [bà(a)l-mákri]

בַַּעַל⸗עַסְקָן [bà(a)l-áskon]

בַַּעַל⸗פּוֹעֵל [bà(a)l-póyeyl]

בַַּעַל⸗פַּחֲדָן [bà(a)l-pághdon]

בַַּעַל⸗פַּשְׁרָן [bà(a)l-páshron]

בַַּעַל⸗קוֹרֵא [bà(a)l-kóyrey]

בַַּעַל⸗קְרִיאָה [bà(a)l-kríyo], וגם: [bà(a)l-kréyo]

בַַּעַל⸗תּוֹקֵעַ [bà(a)l-toykéya]

בַַּעַל⸗תְּקִיעָה [bà(a)l-t(ə)kíyo]

---

◊

3 Pluralization and Gender of Nouns ending in ת

Nouns ending in תֿ are generally pluralized by suffixation of ים (rather than ותֿ or יותֿ). For more on individual lexical items, please refer to the Ashkenazic Dictionary.

אֵיכוּתֿ [éykhus] ← אֵיכוּתִֿים [eykhúsim]

גָּלוּתֿ  [gólus] ← גְּלוּתִֿים [g(ə)lúsim]

גֵּאוּתֿ {agentivized} [géyus] ← גֵּאוּתִֿים [geyúsim]

דַּלוּתֿ {agentivized} [dálus] ← דַּלֵיתִֿים [daléysim]

דֶּלֶתֿ  ← דְּלָתִֿים [dlósim]

דְּמוּתֿ [d(ə)mús] ← דְּמוּתִֿים [d(ə)músim]

זְכוּתֿ [zəkhús] וגם: [skhús] ← זְכוּתִֿים [zəkhúsim] וגם: [skhúsim]

טָעוּתֿ [tóus] ← טָעוּתִֿים [toúsim]

כְּזַיִתֿ [kəzáy(i)s] (‘minimal quantity of food in Jewish law’) ← כְּזַיִתִֿים [kəzáy(i)sim] (≠ כְּזֵיתִֿים ‘like olives’)

כַּמּוּתֿ [kámus] ← כַּמּוּתִֿים [kamúsim]

מְהוּתֿ [m(ə)hús] ← מְהוּתִֿים [m(ə)húsim]

עַזּוּתֿ [ázus] ← עַזּוּתִֿים [azúsim]

רֵעוּתֿ  [réyus] ← רֵעוּתִֿים [re(y)úsim]

רְשׁוּתֿ  [r(ə)shús] ← רְשׁוּתִֿים [r(ə)shúsim]

שַׁבָּתֿ [shábos] ← שַׁבָּתִֿים [shabósim]

שְׁטוּתֿ [shtús] ← שְׁטוּתִֿים [shtúsim]

תּוֹעֶלֶתֿ [toyéles] ← תַּוֹעַלְתִֿים [toyálsim]

תַַּרְבּוּתֿ [tárbus] ← תַּרְבּוּתִֿים [tarbúsim]

◊

2b. When such nouns are characterized by i (khirik vowel) as the only or last vowel in the noun, the shift i → ey applies in pluralization.

אַחֲרִיתֿ [ákhris] ← אַחֲרֵיתִֿים [akhréysim]

בְּרֵאשְׁיתֿ [bréyshis] ← בְּרֵאשֵׁיתִֿים [bre(y)shéysim]

דַּלִּיתֿ [dális] ← דַּלֵֵיתִֿים [daléysim]

טַלִּיתֿ [tális] ← טַלֵיתִֿים [taléysim]

מַעֲלִיִתֿ [máylis] ← מַעֲלֵיתִֿים [ma(y)léysim]

עַרְבִיתֿ [ְárvis] ← עַרְבֵיתִֿים [arvéysim]

שְׁאֵרִיתֿ [shəéyris] ← שְׁאֵרֵיתִֿים [shəe(y)réysim]

שַׁחֲרִיתֿ [shákhris] ← שַׁחֲרִיתִֿים [shakhréysim]

תַּכְלִיתֿ [tákhlis] ← תַּכְלֵיתִֿים [takhlysim]

תַּמְצִיתֿ [támtsis] ← תַּמְצֵיתִֿים [tamtséysim]

תָּענִיתֿ [tónis] (\תַּעֲנִיתֿ [táynis]) ← תַּעֲנֵיתִֿים [ta(y)néysim]

---

◊

4.  Analogical Leveling of Nouns

Via analogical leveling, a number of morphological paradigms are regularized, overriding exceptions of classic Hebrew (ancient exceptions themselves often resulting from the vocalic limitations of archaic Near Eastern pharyngeal consonants lost early on in second millennium Ashkenazic Europe). Perhaps the most conspicuous of these is the classical paradigm Cɔ:Có:C /  Cɔ:Cú:C (e.g. Tiberian לָשׁוֹן [lɔ:šó:n]) > (Eastern) Ashkenazic (Ashke-2) Cɔ́CɔyC (lóshoyn, Southern: lúshoyn; Northern: lósheyn) > Yiddish Cɔ́C(ə)C (lóshn, Southern: lúshn). Occasionally (e.g. אָרוֹן) the levelled Ashkenazic form conforms to Biblical, rather than later non-Ashkenazic Hebrew. The affected items are few but prominent.

אָרוֹן [óroyn]

חָלוֹם [khóloym]

עָמוּד [ómud]

---

◊

Lexicon

For individual words, please consult the evolving Ashkenazic Dictionary, and please inform us if the items you seek are not yet included. Here, we will restrict ourselves to the most frequent distinguishing lexical feature (vis-a-vis Israeli) and one frequently applicable principle.

1. The everyday word for ‘want’ (or ‘wish to’) is the root חפץ√, conjugated as follows:

◊

want (/wish) to

חפץ√

:present tense 

אֲנִי\אַתָּה\הוּא — חָפֵץ [khófeyts] וגם: [khoféyts];

אֲני\אַתּ\הִיא – חֲפֵצָה [kh(a)féytso];

{וגם, ל″ז ול″נ (ל″י): חָפְצַנִי [khoftsáni] ′אֲנִי חָפֵץ′}

אֲנַחְנוּ\אַתֶּם\הֵם — חֲפֵצִים [kh(a)féytsim];

{וגם, ל″ר: חָפְצַנוּ [khoftsánu] ′אֲנַחְנוּ חֲפֵצִים′}

אֲנַחְנוּ\אַתֶּן\הֵן — חֲפֵצִוֹתֿ [kh(a)féytsoys];

❊

:past tense 

אֲנִי חָפַצְתִּי [khofátsti] \ אַתָּה חָפַצְתָּ [khofátsto] \ הוּא חָפַץ [khófats] וגם: [khofáts];

אֲני חָפַצְתִּי [khofátsti] \ אַתּ חָפַצְתְּ [khofátst] \ הִיא חָפְצָה [khóftso] וגם: [khoftsó];

אֲנַחְנוּ חָפַצְנוּ [khofátsnu] \ אַתֶּם חֲפַצְתֶּם [kh(a)fátstem] \ הֵם  חָפְצוּ [khóftsu] וגם: [khoftsú];

אֲנַחְנוּ חָפַצְנוּ [khofátsnu] \ אַתֶּן חֲפַצְתֶּן [kh(a)fátsten] וגם: [kh(a)fatstén]\ הֵן חָפְצוּ [khóftsu] וגם: [khoftsú];

❊

:future tense 

אֲנִי אֶחְפּוֹץ [ékhpoyts] וגם: [ekhpóyts] \ אַתּה תַּחְפּוֹץ [tákhpoyts] וגם: [takhpóyts] \ הוּא יַחְפּוֹץ [yákhpoyts] וגם: [yakhpóyts];

אֲני אֶחְפּוֹץ [ékhpoyts] וגם: [ekhpóyts] \ אַתְּ תַּחְפְּצִי [takhpətsí] וגם: אַתְּ תַּחְפּוֹצִי [takhpóytsi] \ הִיא תַּחְפּוֹץ [tákhpoyts] וגם: [takhpóyts];

אֲנַחְנוּ נַחְפּוֹץ [nákhpoyts] וגם: [nakhpóyts] \ אַתֶּם תַּחְפְּצוּ [takhpətsú] וגם: תַּחְפּוֹצוּ [takhpóytsu] \ הֵם יַחְפְּצוּ [yakhpətsú] וגם: יַחְפּוֹצוּ [yakhpóytsu];

אֲנַחְנוּ נַחְפּוֹץ [nákhpoyts] וגם: [nakhpóyts]; אַתֶּן \ הֵן — תַּחְפּוֹצְנָה [takhpóytsno]

---

2. The unmarked everyday word in Ashkenazic is often not the same as the choices made for modern Israeli. Some exanples:

אַדְּרַבָּא [ádəràbo] (‘!definitely’)

אֶפְשָׁר [ָéfshor] (‘maybe’)

בִּטָחוֹן [bitókhoyn] (‘belief in God [alone]’)

בַּעַל⸗הַבָּתֿ [bal(h)abós] (‘boss’)

בַּעַל⸗מְצַלֵּם [bà(a)l-mətsáleym] (photographer)

גְּמַר חַתִימָה טוֹבָה [gmár kh(a)sìmo-tóyvo] (‘high holiday greeting’)

  חַלָּשׁוּתֿ [khalóshus] (‘nausea’)

  חַמִשָּׁה⸗עָשָֹר [kham(i)shósor] (Tu Beshvat)

לְבָנָה [ləvóno] (‘moon’)

מֵילָא [méylo] (‘never mind’)

מְנוֹרָה [m(ə)nóyro] (‘Hanukkiah, Chanukah menorah’)

מַעֲלָה [maylo] (‘advantage, strong point’)

מַעֲרִיב [máyriv] (evening prayer)

נוֹשֵֹא אִיגָרוֹתֿ [nòysey-igóroys] (mailman)

סִיפּוּר⸗הַמַעֲשֶֹה [sìpur-(h)amáyse] (‘[plot [of the play, film etc’)

עָלֵינוּ לְ- [oléynu l-] (‘we must’)

צַפְרָא טָבָא [tsáfro tóvo] (‘Good morning’)

קַשְׁיָא [kásh(y)o] (‘a difficult question to answer’)

רֹאשׁ⸗עִירֹון [ròysh-íroyn] (mayor)

רַחְמָנָא לִצְלַן [rakhmóno litslán] (God forbid)

רַמְשָׁא טָבָא [rámsho tóvo] (‘Good evening’)

  שַׁלוֹשְׁ⸗סעוּדוֹתֿ [shàlo(y)sh-seúdoys] (‘late Sabbath meal’)

 שְׁמִִירָה  [shmíro] (‘security’)

---

---

◊

Semantics

1.  Many individual semantic features are recorded in the Dictionary. One general principle that covers many items is the retention of specifically traditional Jewish meanings for items from Jewish culture, religion and heritage, while employing others for more universal concepts.

   ---

2. It is impolite to address people in the second person via a second person sg. pronoun (אַתָּה and אַתּ), unless these are intimate friends or relatives or little (usually preteen) children. Classic Ashkenazic uses third person endings affixed to כָּבוֹד  ‘honor’, e.g. ֹכְּבוֹדו ([kvóydoy] you, formal m. sg.), ּכְּבוֹדָה ([kvóydo] you, formal f. sg.), with appropriate third person verbs to match. However, modern Haredi and Hasidic usage has in our times taken on use of second person plurals instead of singulars with the appropriate second personal plural verbs, sometimes extended also to the first person (e.g. formal  קבלנו אתֿ מכתבכם ‘I received your [sg. formal-via-plural-form] letter’), using the morphological plural (for first and second person) in place of the classic Ashkenazic third person usage (for second person, the addressee, only).

---

◊

Aspects of Grammar, Syntax and Usage

1. The concept ‘need’ (/’must’ /’have to’) is most frequently expressed via the (unstressed) preposition עַל (‘on’, ‘upon’, cf, Eng. ‘incumbent on me’) in reflexive mood with the appropriate objective personal pronoun. E.g. עָלַי לָלֶכֶתֿ ([oláy lolékhes] ‘I have to go’), עָלֵינוּ לִזְכּוֹר ([oléynu liskóyr] ‘We must remember’), etc.

---

◊

2. First person verbs are often formed by the morphological compound of stem+ending, in addition to the option of using a pronoun and verb, e.g.:

חָפְצַנִי [khoftsáni] (אֲנִי חָפֵץ \ חֲפֵצָה)

חָשְׁבַנִי [khozhváni] (אֲנִי חוֹשֵׁב \ חוֹשֶׁבֶתֿ)

שְׁאָלַנִּי [shəoláni] (אֲנִי שׁוֹאֵל \ שׁוֹאֶלֶתֿ)

---

◊

3. The preposition עַל is often used in to sense of ‘to’ or ‘at’ when the object is an event such as a wedding, funeral, commercial fair or a recurring weekly or other market. It is undressed (other than for contrastive emphasis).

עַל הָאַסִּיפָה [al-hoasífo]

עַל הַחֲתֿוּנָה [al-hakhásəno]

עַל הַלְּוַיָּה [al-hal(ə)váyo]

עַל הַקאָנְגרֶס [al-hakongrés]

עַל הַשּׁוּק [al-hashúk]

---

◊

4. The conjunction that (‘I told you that I would not go to that place’) may be expressed by שֶׁ or כִּי.

הַרֵי אָמַרְתִּי לכְבוֹדוֹ (\לִכְבוֹדָהּ) שֶׁלֹא (\כּי לֹא) אֵלֵךְ לַמָּקוֹם הַהוא.

---

◊

5. Belonging and being part of an entity, sometimes translating ‘of’ is often expressed by prefixal ד  (in some circumstances written ′ד) instead of  שֶׁלֹ or use of the construct state:

יְשִׁיבָה גּדוֹלָה דְּניוּ יאָרק

בֵּיתֿ דִּין צֶדָק דִּקְהִילָה חֲרֵדיִתֿ

מְתִֿיבְתָּא דְּחֲסִידֵי מוֹנקאַטש

---

 

6. In some styles, the definite article is prefixed to a nominal compound (formed via the construct) rather than occurring before the second/final component (i.e. infixation to the head).

הַבֵּיתֿ עוֹלָם הַיָּשָׁן

הַבֵּיתֿ סֵפֶר הָחָדָשׁ

הָרֹאשׁ קְהִילָה הַמְּצוּיָן

---

◊

7.  יֵשׁ in the sense of ‘there is’ or ‘there are’ is generally used with suffixes denoting number and gender. The suffices may on occasion be stressed for emphasis or contrast, overriding the usual penultimate stress.

יֵשְׁנוֹ טַעַם  [yeyshnoy táam] (‘there is a reason’)

יֵשׁנְָהּ סִיבָּה [yeyshno síbo] ( ‘there is a reason/cause’)

יֵשְׁנָם בַּחוֹרִים [yeyshnom bakhúrim] וגם: [bókhurim] (‘there are young men’)

יֵשְׁנָן בַּחוּרוֹתֿ [yeyshnon bakhúroys] (‘there are young women’)

On its own (unsuffixed), יֵשׁ often occurs in the sense of an unspecified third person, ‘people in general’, ‘some (things or people)’, ‘certain people, etc. dependent on the phrase.

יֵשׁ אוֹמְרִים [yéysh ó(y)mrim] (‘there are those who say’ / ‘there is a view that’)

יֵשׁ שֶׁמַבְחִינִים [yéysh shemafkhínim ] (‘there are those who differentiate’)

---

◊

8. In place of classic Hebrew synthesis of the definite article with a prefixed preposition (via application of the vowel of the article, typically a, o or e, to the prefix and deletion of article marked h-), some styles of Ashkenazic, particularly written rabbinic styles, retain the definite article which is infixed between the preposition and the noun:

לְהַבַּיִתֿ [ləha-báyis] ‘to the house/home’

לְהַמַּחֲלָה [ləha-mákhlo] ‘of/to/concerning the illness’

לְהָאֹהֶל [ləho-óyhel] ‘to the houselet above the grave / to the tent’

לְהֶעָתִֿיד [ləhe-ósid] ‘to /of the future’

---

◊

Appendices

 

Appendix 1: 

Excerpt from Daniel Persky’s Correct Hebrew (N.Y. 1962). As PDF.

◊

Appendix 2:

Excerpts from the classic bilingual Hebrew-English anthology,The Hebrew Poem Itself (ed. Stanley Burnshaw, T. Carmi, Ezra Spicehandler, Schocken Books, NY 1966). The book wisely has all poems written in Ashkenazic marked by an asterisk. One of the essays at its end, by Benjamin Hrushovski (Harshav), deals with the issue in greater depth and with more balance than most other anthologies of modern Hebrew verse. But  the “Appendix” to the volume  (by which editor?) contains this perhaps startling statement:

“Those poems marked by an asterisk (*) (e.g. pp. 25, 60)  were originally meant to be read in the so-called Ashkenazi pronunciation (hereafter referred to as AP), traditionally used in Central and Eastern Europe. […] Now these AP poems, if read in AP, would be unintelligible to most Israelis. Instead they are read today in ordinary IP [Israeli pronunciation], which has the effect of obliterating both rhyme scheme and meter, or they are read in a slightly modified IP — one that keeps the AP stress patterns and hence has the effect of retaining at least the essentials of the meter. In transcribing the AP poems in this book, the editors decided to follow the latter practice […].” (p. 194)

This is followed by an attempt at genuine Ashkenazic transcription of a single poem, Bialik’s Bisshuvósi (Israeli Biteshuvatí,, and alas, the (pseudo)academic — frankly Ashkephobic — rendition equally offensive to the ears of both traditions: Biteshuváti). Incredibly, it has salient errors (including use of phonetic symbols for ancient pharyngeal consonants!) in a volume where such meticulous care is taken for the presentation of Hebrew poems in transcription. Second, it admits to devising for the volume itself what it calls the typical Israeli compromise of reading the nation’s classic poetry in a mishmash that was never native to anybody. Last but not least, it considers Israeli students, poetry readers, scholars and people generally as somehow genetically incapable of enjoying poetry as it was written in the generation of their own grandparents and great grandparents, including the nation’s national anthem. Turning from the old 20th century polemics, however, to a new and constructive 21st century discourse, is it not time for Genuine Ashkenazic (GA) to take its place in Israeli education so that the truly great poems of Bilaik, Gordon, Imber, Michal, Tchernichovsky and so many others can be enjoyed in the language in which they were written? Is the Israeli student of today “not capable” of rapidly mastering the norms of their nation’s founding poets? The proposition borders on the ridiculous when one finds that one can explain to an Israeli student (or any pupil of Hebrew) in a very small amount of time that by reading בָּ as bo, בֵּ as bey, and בּוֹ as boy (rather than ba, be, and bo respectively) and using penultimate stress (familiar from many names, and of course all three penultimately stressed words in all kinds of Hebrew), they can almost instantaneously feel and appreciate the sounds, ethos and cultural milieu of their own nation’s founding modern poets, whose products include, no more and no less, the national anthem. The “problem” does not lie in the great modern Hebrew poets among Zionism’s founders and builders being “unintelligible.” What has to be overcome is not the nonsense of three vowels and penultimate stress being supposedly unintelligible. The challenge is rather to overcome a lingering complex of hate, shame, derision and self-deprecation (by now deprecation of grandparents and forebears in most cases) that for reasons that need to be researched, can in the twenty-first century on occasion be much more emotionally virulent than lingering animosity toward or belittlement of the status and legitimacy of Yiddish, and more widely, of the thousand-year old Ashkenazic civilization that lies at the cradle of the Zionist project and persisted for many decades before a campaign by elites and the powers for eradication.

Since the Holocaust, this is an endangered Jewish treasure (and—there is no longer a 1920s fear of Israeli beyond overwhelmed by new arrivals of Ashkenazim from Eastern Europe…). Indeed, a good start would be to enjoy that very poem, Bialik’s Bisshuvósi as it was meant to be read. For today’s internationally acclaimed superb Israeli students, of all backgrounds, it would be a breath of cultural fresh air. Try it. You’ll see.

◊

Appendix 3:

Comment on Miryam Segal’s A New Sound in Hebrew Poetry: Poetics, Politics, Accent (Indiana University Press: Bloomington 2010). This major study is a must-read for all interested in the topic. Our disagreements are perhaps in two areas. By failing to even hint at the complexity and sophistication of the different kinds of Ashkenazic  Hebrew using civilization of pre-Holocaust Eastern Europe, and largely adopting the dismissive attitudes of those in the Land of Israel, the reader does not really learn the second side of the story. And the lack of presentation of Ashkenazic sophistication tie in with case-specific queries like: Are Tchernichovsky’s and Bialik’s “forced confessions” within the Zionist power structures truly indicative of their feelings toward Ashkenazic? Their pro-Ashkenazic statements are cursorily glossed over and remain uncited. And no, these fine poets did not write in some ugly hated jargon of no merit.

Moreover, it can seem that the language of millions of people is dismissed to some kind of “old fashioned accent” (emphasis added), its actual features mostly unmentioned, while the debates among teachers about this or that long-lost pharyngeal used by nobody for thousands of years is elevated to the height of human interest. This is an accurate description of the views and mindset of the anti-Yiddish anti-Ashkenazic, culturally self-hating leaders of the Yishuv, but fails to even mention the incredible prestige enjoyed by an array of varieties of Ashkenazic among millions in Eastern Europe. It is because of the Holocaust that the language of millions was destroyed, and the success of the State of Israel that the new Israeli language has so splendidly succeeded. But a historian of ideas might wish to see beyond winners and losers in the political world. What did/would millions of East European Jews make of the language of the Gaon of Vilna, the Baal Shem Tov, and all the 19th century Hebrew poets (among them Odom Ha-koyheyn, Michal and Y. L. Gordon).  Any appetite for researching the  rapturous welcome given Tchernichovsky and Bialik by ecstatically delighted East European audiences? (Very different from their being laughed off Tel Aviv stages by the violent bands of Gedudei Meginei Hasafa).

What is also missing in the book is a frank discussion of the degree of raw hate (actually self-hate) against Yiddish motivating so many of the pseudo-scholarly anti-Ashkenazic diatribes of the Yishuv’s authorities cited. Ultimately this must include the cruelty with which the nation’s and the Zionist movement’s own greatest poets were forced to abandon a magnificent tradition of sounds, rhythms, norms and culture that was and will forever remain an indelible part of their soul (hence the sharp decline in their poetic quality after the forced switches to the modern Israeli language formed).

This fine book needs to become half of a larger work that its own  author is splendidly qualified to undertake.

◊

Appendix 4:

Prof. Itamar Even-Zohar, the leading (and pioneer) international scholar at the crossroads of semiotics, literature and linguistics, in his seminal paper, “The Emergence of a Native Hebrew Culture in Palestine: 1882-1948” got to the core of the matter in a way that many lesser scholars do not, whether or not one agrees with his opinions on the merits of the views he is recounting. The page number references to the four quotations cited are to publication of the paper in his famous collection, Polysystem Studies (1990/1997, pp. 175-191), which he has generously made freely available online (many of his seminal works can be accessed via Prof. Even-Zohar’s  website).

(1) “Among the numerous ways manifested for counterposing ‘new Hebrew’ to ‘old Diaspora Jew’ were the transition to physical labor (mainly agriculture or ‘working the land’, as it was called); self-defense and the concomitant use of arms; the supplanting of the old, ‘contemptible’ Diaspora language, Yiddish, with a new tongue, colloquial Hebrew (conceived of at one and the same time as being the authentic and the ancient language of the people), adopting the Sephardi rather than the Ashkenazi pronunciation; discarding traditional Jewish dress and adopting other fashions (such as the Bedouin-Circassian, notably among the youth of the First Aliya and members of Ha-shomer, the Watchmen’s Association); dropping East European family names and assuming Hebrew names instead.”

(2) “The most important element in the twin decisions to speak Hebrew and speak Sephardi Hebrew stemmed from their qualities as cultural oppositions: Hebrew as against Yiddish, Sephardi as against Ashkenazi; in both cases, new against old. This outweighed any principle or scholarly discussions about “correct” pronunciation (although the latter were often conducted in such terms).” (p. 179)

 (3) “Similarly, the desire to discard the most conspicuous features of the European Diaspora led to a decision to drop Ashkenazi pronunciation: it reminded one too much of Eastern Europe and Yiddish. Hence, the popularity of Sephardi pronunciation.” (p. 181)

(4) “Clearly, the so-called Sephardi pronunciation actualized by natives of Eastern Europe was quite different from that employed in Palestine by non-Europeans. What was actualized, in fact, was only the minimum necessary to establish it in opposition to Ashkenazi pronunciation.” (p. 185)

The following quotation is from Professor Even-Zohar’s well-known paper, “The Role of Russian and Yiddish in the Making of Modern Hebrew”, which is likewise included in Polysystem Studies (pp. 111-120):

(5) “Ben-Yehuda decided to select a pronunciation remotest from his own East European (“Ashkenazi”) pronunciation (which by contiguity recalled the spoken vernacular, Yiddish), namely the so-called Sephardi (Spanish-Portuguese) pronunciation.” (p. 118)

◊

Appendix 5: 

Excerpt from Shelomo Morag, “The Emergence of Modern Hebrew: Some Sociolinguistic Perspectives” in Lewis Glinert (ed), Hebrew in Ashkenaz. A Language in Extile (Oxford University PRess: New York 1993), pp.208-221):

“More important than any other factor in the process of the Full Return was the conceptual, ideological one: the urge to sever ties with the legacy of the Old World — the shtetl of Central and Eastern Europe, the galut. For a large portion of the immigrants who arrived in Eretz-Israel during the Second Aliyah (1903-1914), Ashkenazi Hebrew —and, needless to say, Yiddish — formed part of a semiotic system that portrayed the Old World from which they sought to escape. The feeling that such an escape was essential for establishing the new, revamped culture was deep-seated.” (p. 118)

◊

Appendix 6: 

Excerpts from Dovid Katz’s Words on Fire: The Unfinished Story of Yiddish (2007) touching on Ashkenazic Hebrew issues. The book is available free online at the author’s website.

◊

Appendix 7: 

Controversial assertion (opinion).

It is posited as working hypothesis that some children born in Zionist settlements in the Land of Israel (generally speaking to First Aliyah migrants) between c. the 1880s and c. World War I were native speakers of Ashkenazic Hebrew (albeit bilingual with their parents’ native Yiddish). In other words, the first generation of native speakers of any kind of Hebrew in thousands of years were speakers of Ashkenazic Hebrew whose literary and cultural leaders all used Ashkenazic initially as their only kind of Hebrew. (For master poets like Bialik and Tchernichovsky, the eventual forced conversion to the later “Sephardic” Israeli norm led to an end to their ability to (even remotely) maintain their erstwhile literary quality, as is to be expected when primary features of one’s native and literary language are stigmatized, humiliated and replaced by diktat of the powers that be (cf. e.g. the two types in Tchernichovsky’s final anthology, where his preface notes that those to be read in Sephardic are marked by an asterisk).

One of the results of the bitter powers-that-be sponsored campaign (violent in the hands of, among others, Gedúd Meginéi Hasafá) against Yiddish, Ashkenazic, and East European Jewish identity and cultural profile (among which the sounds, structure and ethos of language figure prominently) was a largely successful attempt to erase traces of the first generations in modern history of native speakers of Ashkenazic Hebrew as primary childhood language. Some of these traces are nevertheless recoverable by a new generation of open-minded scholars with the will and werwithal to challenge the later “official version” that sadly still reigns unchallenged  among a portion of professional scholars in the field. Indeed some of the most persuasive proofs will come from the anti-Yiddish, anti-Ashkenazic invective in the early twentieth century Yishuv. They were after all out to kill the native language(s), sounds, spirit and culture of the East European gólus/galút Jew, and this too is part of the cultural history. Looking forward, the greatest desideratum is for a new generation to look again, free from the Ashkephobia that has passed, unnoticed and never held up to scrutiny, right to some of even the youngest scholars. The anachronistic Ashkephobia of days gone by, which includes scholars’ failure to study any of the intricate and nuanced linguistic history and structure of the language varities being dismissed, needs to be replaced by an openeness to studying all sides of an issue.

◊

Appendix 8:

A. M. Kaiser’s essay on the campaign for “Sephardic” Hebrew in London (from his Ba undz in Vaytshepl, London 1944, pp. 68-70).

---

◊

Ashkenazic Mini-Dictionary

---

◊

לא תם ולא נשלם

בדפוס ר′ אליה⸗לייזער מדפיס

◊

 

בווילנא